Bilingualism in the U.S. Bilingualism

¶ … BILINGUALISM in the U.S.

Bilingualism

Effect of Bilingualism in America

Sociolinguistics

During 2008 in America, the movement for bilingualism, no matter its intent in theory, in practice, some individuals, as Kimball contends in "Institutionalizing Our Demise: America vs. Multiculturalism," published in 2004 in New Criterion, translates to not mastering English. Whether he/she fluently masters English or not, an individual is considered bilingual in the U.S., when he/she speaks and understands English and one other language. During the nineteenth century, Linton reports, bilingualism, as well as, bilingual education, although in a lesser sense, was relatively known. Despite knowledge relating to bilingualism, albeit, Linton contends in the article, "A critical mass model of bilingualism among U.S.-born Hispanics," published in Social Forces during 2004, a belief emerged in the U.S. that "American English both reflected and constituted the democratic and rational nature of the country." (Portes & Schauffler, 1996; cited by Linton) to some reportedly influential thinkers, this concept about English instituted a common language in the U.S., for practical reasons. In addition, many individuals began to perceive English as a critical unifying element - uniquely apt to define the U.S. And its citizens. (Fishman 1966, cited by Linton) in light of contemporary considerations about bilingualism, this researcher sets out to stimulate an increased understanding of bilingualism and Sociolinguistics, as well as, the fact that the effects of bilingualism in the U.S., as the introductory quote insinuates (Kimball), reflects the fact that choices routinely present themselves not only in speech, but also in unspoken words and actions - no matter the language. Sociolinguists work in Sociolinguistics, which identifies a term depicting a field of study that examines the connection between language and society, Behrens and Neeman explain in "Focus on Accent: A Sociolinguistic Perspective of Diversity in the Classroom" in Research & Teaching in Developmental Education. Sociolinguists purport that as a "standalone," nothing inherent to a linguistic feature deems it as abhorrent. Individuals validate biases against a group, albeit, by devaluing particular linguistic markers associated with that specific group. (Behrens and Neeman) One pioneer in the field of sociolinguistics, Dell Hymes, purports that society's structure potentially impacts an individual's utilization of and/or attitudes toward certain components of language, particularly accents. Consequently, a person may use language as a weapon to discriminate against and/or control particular segments of society. Some individuals also stigmatize groups associated with a stigmatized linguistic trait (pronouncing aks for ask). (Hymes, 1974; Newman, 2002; cited by Behrens and Neeman)

Countering Contentions in Bilingualism

In the article published in Bilingual Review, "What's wrong with the concept of cognitive development in studies of bilingualism?" Takakuwa explains that from the nineteenth century to the 1960s, a number of experts purported that bilingualism would hamper children's intellectual development, lead to psychological confusion (Laurie 1890; Saer 1923; Smith 1923, and prove harmful on cognitive development (Ausubel, Sullivan, and Ives 1980; Darcy 1953).

Findings of studies, such as these, continually confirmed and challenged bilingualism and related scores of bilingual children to rate lower on measures of verbal intelligence than monolingual children. No differences between the two groups on measures of nonverbal intelligence, albeit, were revealed. Takakuwa argues that purporting bilingualism produces a positive effect on children's cognitive development proves misleading and points out that bilingualism research in bilingualism only reveals bilingualism "may have a positive effect on children's metalinguistic development, and that the degree of such a positive effect is far from clear." Determining the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive development and exploring the extent bilingualism proves advantageous to children's metalinguistic development, according Takakuwa, merits further study, as does the investigation whether bilingualism impacts any cognitive development aspects other than metalinguistic development.

Challenges to Merits of Bilingualism Despite study's confirming benefits of bilingualism, unfounded, as well as, valid challenges to its merits still regularly surface and relate concerns, as Telzrow does in 2006 in the article:

The Story of Immigration in America: Though it Is Not Often Acknowledged Today, Immigration Policy of the Past Was Designed to Ensure That Immigrants Assimilated Quickly and Became Americanized," published in the New American. According to this source, society's contemporary structure, bilingualism and multiculturalism, along with a liberal policy that basically ignores illegal immigration, have created a different kind of immigrant, "one who rejects assimilation and the enduring natural supremacy of the American Idea." (Telzrow) One NPR/Kaiser/Kennedy School survey relates that 57% of polled immigrants in a survey, agreed the U.S. "should be a country made up of many values that change as new people come here."

Only 39%, however, said the U.S. "should be a country with basic American values that immigrants take on when they come here." (Telzrow) West also relates concerns relating to dangers of bilingualism in her editorial, "Cultural takeover; Disturbing transformations in U.S., Europe," published during June 2007 in the Washington Times.

West purports that President Bush does not "lament the passing of the English-speaking peoples," and repeats a cliche: "Jose" is not the second-most popular name in the United States." West points out, albeit, that although still unofficial, Spanish constitutes America's second language.

Part of the effect of bilingualism is seen in the fact that the United States continues to be defined more by its accommodation of a 14.8% Hispanic minority, with a significant number of Hispanics living in the U.S. illegally.

Billingualism

I'm bilingual.

A speak English and speak educationese.

Shirley M. Hufstedler, U.S. Secretary of Education

Simpson)

Reflections

The Hispanization of America West, West points out to individuals beset by bilingualism, whether in business or in the business of daily life, constitutes a contemporary, confirmed fact. This does not mean, nevertheless, one does not experience a "gut-check" when he/she reads about the extent Republican and Democrat 2008 American presidential candidates currently gear up "Spanish-speaking drives within their English-speaking campaigns to vie for Spanish-speaking voters." (West) Linton reflects on historical events leading to bilingualism in the U.S. today and reports that in 1906, the U.S. Congress enacted an English-language requirement be met for an individual to secure American citizenship. In 1907, Congress appointed the Dillingham Commission, a joint committee, to examine how immigration impacted the U.S. "Guided by the theories of influential nativist scholars, the commission concluded in 1911 that new immigration consisted mostly of 'inferior peoples' who were physically, mentally, and linguistically different and would thus not easily adopt 'fundamental American ideals'." (King 2000:64; cited by Linton) Linton further notes:

World War I heightened anxieties about national loyalty and immigrant assimilation. During and following the war, several states prohibited the teaching of German. The governors of Iowa and South Dakota issued decrees prohibiting the use of any language other than English in public places or over the telephone (Piatt 1990). Schools in many states required children to take language loyalty oaths. A 1919 Nebraska statute banned teaching any language other than English before the ninth grade (Dillard 1985; Marckwardt 1980). In 1923, an Illinois law...[declared] "American" to be the state's official tongue (Tatalovich 1995).

Immigration virtually stopped by the 1930s, due first to restrictive legislation passed in 1920s,...then to the Depression.... The notion that immigrants should follow this pattern became powerfully entrenched.

In the 1960s, immigration reform, the Civil Rights Act, and the Voting Rights Act collectively provided a new basis for minority groups to politically and culturally articulate their ethnic identity....a potential...opportunity for other languages to flourish alongside English. In particular, the position of Spanish in American life became part of the civil rights agenda because the obligation to exclusively use English in the public sphere disadvantaged American citizens [growing up] in a Spanish-language environment. Puerto Ricans living in New York...obtained the right to vote in Spanish, obligating [the provision of] bilingual ballots.

The Bilingual Education Act (BEA), originally passed by Congress in 1968, also held potential for promoting a greater valuation of Spanish and Spanish speakers in U.S. society. The BEA aimed to improve...poor school performance of immigrant children by providing funds for "transitional" programs to help children of limited English-speaking ability learn English well before transitioning into regular classrooms....the language of the original BEA and its limited focus on schools serving large concentrations of poor families served to further associate bilingualism with disadvantage, cultural deprivation, and alienation (Haugen 1972; Schmidt 2000).... did not really encourage bilingualism. Transitional bilingual programs use the native language as a bridge to ease a child's transition to English;...not promote proficiency and literacy in the native language.

Revisions of the BEA have greatly extended its application, goals, and the pedagogical strategies it supports....Yet it is still common to gauge success at educating the children of immigrants by evaluating how quickly they give up their first language and shift to English (Garcia 1995). Decades after the Civil Rights movement, bilingual education has come under attack, and the U.S. is still regarded as a graveyard for foreign languages (Rodriguez 2002). Many immigrant parents do not pass their native languages on to their children because English is clearly the most socially and economically valued tongue and because they fear that bilingualism will invite discrimination (Fishman 1996; Lippi-Green 1997). (Linton)

One Turning Point One prominent turning point for the opposition of bilingualism occurred with Peal and Lambert's (1962) study, as after their study, "bilingualism became recognized as having a cognitive advantage. (Palij and Homel, 1987; cited by Takakuwa, 2000) Peal and Lambert (1962; cited by Takakuwa, 2000) studied ten-year-olds from French schools in Montreal, Canada, and found that on 15 out of 18 measures of intelligence, scores of their participating bilingual group totaled higher than the monolingual group. No differences were found between the two groups on the other measures in their study, however, on measures of both verbal and nonverbal intelligence. The bilingual group's scores totaled higher than the monolingual group. Recent research on bilingualism reveals an opposing view continues to challenge bilingualism's positive effect on children's cognitive development. (Bialystok 1988; Day and Shapson 1996; Palij and Home, 1987; cited byTakakuwa, 2000) Findings from Peal and Lambert (1962; cited by Takakuwa, 2000), albeit, clearly contradicts results of previous research, purporting that bilingual children were considered cognitively inferior to monolingual children.

Bilingualism Links to Multiculturalism Bilingualism, which intricately links to multiculturalism, does not only constitute academic phenomena, but also fosters attitudes which profoundly impact social as well as intellectual consequences. One consequence, "a sharp rise in the phenomenon of immigration without -- or with only partial - assimilation: a dangerous demographic trend that threatens American identity in the most basic way." (Kimball) Imperfect loyalty, Kimball contends, adds up to the price of imperfect assimilation, one of the negative impacts of bilingualism in the U.S. Consequently, imperfectly assimilation deserts its supposed beneficiaries and leaves them basically monolingual, sometimes semi-lingual. Kimball contends that the routine occurrence of a choice being given whether to listen to a message in English or Spanish reflects still another small setback for American identity. Bilingual education, for some immigrants to the U.S., consigns a large number of immigrant children to failure. At one time in the U.S., mastery of the English language was perceived to be the great national unifier and a bridge for an individual to cross and reach success. Now, to some, mastery of the U.S. language has come to symbolize cultural oppression. "Today, bilingual education caters mainly to Hispanic students - the very same group that now suffers a higher high-school dropout rate than any other ethnic group in California." (Telzrow) Despite protests from immigrant parents who, like their European predecessors, "are aware of the necessity to learn English as quickly as possible." (Telzrow)

The NABE the National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) reported as the only national U.S. professional organization "devoted to representing bilingual learners and bilingual education professionals...has affiliates in 25 states which collectively represent more than 20,000 members that include Bilingual and English Language Learner (ELL) teachers, parents, paraprofessionals, administrators, professors, advocates, researchers, and policy makers." ("Mission," 2006) NABE states that its mission is to advocate for the United States' Bilingual and English Language Learners and their families through support of and promotion of policy, programs, pedagogy, research, and professional development contributing to academic success, while cultivating a multilingual multicultural society. The NABE also proposes to value a Bilingual and English Language Learners' native language, "lead to English proficiency, and respect cultural and linguistic diversity." ("Mission," 2006) the NABE works to influence and create policies, programs, research, pedagogy and professional development, with the expectation it is investing in American children's education, the U.S.S.' leadership, as well as, contributing to the world's overall well being. By using native and second languages in everyday life, the NABE stresses, Americans not only develop intercultural understanding, but reflect by their example they respect and are able to effectively cross cultural and linguistic borders. As the U.S. constitutes part of a global society, the NABE posits, "Bilingualism and Biliteracy for ALL is an admirable goal for every individual." ("Mission," 2006) the NABE advocates for U.S. citizens to learn not just two - but more than two languages and cultures to help ensure the U.S. remains "at the cutting edge in living and creating unity within diversity." ("Mission," 2006)

Bilingual Education

On its Web site, the National Association for Bilingual Education explains that being bilingual consists of using two languages for a variety of social and pedagogical purposes. In contemporary context during the current period of demographic transformation in the U.S., as well as, in bilingual education, albeit, bilingual reflects something more specific and relates to classroom strategies utilizing the native languages of English language learners (ELLs) for instruction. Reported goals include ("What is Bilingual Education?"):

teaching English, fostering academic achievement, acculturating immigrants to a new society, preserving a minority group's linguistic and cultural heritage, enabling English speakers to learn a second language, developing national language resources, or any combination of the above. ("What is Bilingual Education?")

Significant variations in bilingual education include:

Sometimes the transition to the all-English mainstream is rapid (one to three years), sometimes gradual (five to six years).

Classrooms may be composed entirely of ELLs, or they may include native English speakers who are learning Spanish, Chinese, Navajo, or some other language.

Students are sometimes taught a full curriculum in their native language and in English. Elsewhere ELLs may receive only native-language support - periodic translations or tutoring - with lessons conducted primarily in English. ("What is Bilingual Education?")