Defense Authorization Act of 1916

¶ … Defense Authorization Act of 1916 & 1920 on the National Guard

In 1790, President George Washington and Henry Knox, who was a military leader at that time tried to persuade the Continental Congress to establish a federally controlled militia, and despite their convincing argument about the benefits that the United States would derive from such military policy, the Continental Congress did not accept their proposal. For over 150 years after President Washington and Henry Knox failed to persuade the Continental Congress, numerous military and political leaders repeated similar efforts, however, the Congress repeatedly denied their initiations. During this period, attempt to rectify wars by the War Department met with ideological protests and several military and political leaders revealed the impact of the threats on the territorial integrity of the United States without an effective federally controlled militia. These concerns gradually became an avenue where some political leaders started seeking for the avenue to increase the roles of National Guard instead of creating federally controlled militia. Senator Charles Dick sponsored a bill to increase the role of National Guard instead of creating another military reserve and the effort of Charles Dick and other political and military leaders led the congress to pass National Defense Act 1916. (Groark, 2004). The thesis formulates research objective to enhance greater understanding of the National Defense Act of 1916.

Research Objective

The study attempts to explore the National Defense Act of 1916 and its impact on the National Guard.

To enhance greater understanding about the impact of the National Defense Act of 1916 on the National Guard, the study reflects back on the structure of the National Guard before 1916, and after 1916, and after the National Defense Act of 1920 came into effect. The study also develops hypothesis to provide greater understanding on the method National Defense Acts assist the National Guard to mature after 1916.

Research Questions

The study develops two research questions to understand the operational readiness of National Guard before 1916 and after 1920

1. What was the operational readiness of the National Guard before enacting the Defense Act of 1916?

2. What was the operational readiness of the National Guard after the enactment of Defense Act 1920?

Before the congress passed the Defense Act of 1916 into law, the National Guard was ill equipped and poorly trained. When the National Guard were called upon for the Federal Service, their conducts revealed that personnel in the National Guard still needed to undergo a lengthy training before they could be effective for the national assignment. Within the National Guard, there were a number of unqualified personnel, and the issue always caused the delay to launch the soldiers into fight. The result of the lengthy stay in the hot camps sometime led to the decline in the soldiers moral, sickness, and death.

However, after the congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, National Guard was reorganized and well trained, and after the congress passed the National Defense Act 1920, National Guard was well equipped, and since 1920, there have been mobilization process for the National Guard because of the regular training that the National Guard undergo. To fully equip the Soldiers, National Guard receives updated equipment for the training making them to fully equipped and fully prepared for the war. With modern equipments, the Soldiers and Airman could enter war with better understanding of modern and sophisticated weapons.

Review of the literatures is critical to answer the research questions and develop the hypothesis. Reviewing of different literatures also assists in enhancing the greater understanding of the impact of the Defense Act 1916 and Defense Act 1920 on National Guard.

National Guard before the Defense Act of 1916

The evolution of the National Guard started from the colonial military force of 1636. At that period, Colonial militia forces were primarily reserved for the local defense. (Smith, 1990). Major threats of the U.S. national security have emerged from more than 235 years ago, and one of the highest priorities of the National government is to defend the territorial integrity of the United Stated States. With the formation of the National Guard, they served both states and federal government and they were subject to the authorities of both state and the national government. The history of National Guard has created hot debates among intellectuals and military experts. There are group who argued that National Guard were military forces crated to serve the U.S. national interests. On the other hand, there are group who believe that National Guard are the group of militia patriotic men desire to serve the national defense as well as looking for the means to survive.

However, National Guard was not official recognized until the U.S. government passed the Militia Act of 1792. The aim of this Act was organize, trained, equipped men for the national compulsory militia. The Militia Act of 1792 made it compulsory for all eligible males to engage in military system. (Bowman Kapp & Belasco). Under the Militia Act of 1792, all militiamen were required to arm themselves and the state adjutant generals were appointed to oversee the uniformity of the Militia. As being pointed by Groark (1990),

"The Militia Act required all able-bodied men ages 18-45 to serve in the state militia. Each man enrolling in the state militia had the responsibility maintain his own weapon and equipment. Congress authorized no federal dollars for this purpose." (P 18)

While the Militia Act served the purpose of certainty and reliability for the country to defend itself during the conflict, however, "the Militia Act lacked provisions of enforceability. Congress also failed to finance the costs of implementing the expensive requirements the states now shouldered." (Coasts, 2006 P. 347). In the half of 1800, Militia Act proved unreliable and lacked preparedness. Typically, states showed little interests on Militia and exercise little control over militia. However, the Militia gained forces in 1840s because of the financial support received from some state governments. Despite the financial support received from some states, the Militia lacked unpreparedness, and during the civil war, President Lincoln made it clear that the state Militia were unprepared for the battle.

"In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, supporters of a national reserve army viewed ineffective mobilization of many state militias as unacceptable and compromising of the national defense." (Coasts, 2006 P. 348).

In addition, "The Militia Act did not include how states were going to enforce the enrollment. Thus, many states failed to ensure these "able-bodied men" met their service obligation." (Groark 1990 P. 18).

However, during the Civil War, militiamen largely increased the role of national defense, and in 1879, National Guard Association (NGA) was formed to promote the military efficiency of National Guard as well promoting the interest of the National Guard before the federal government. Meanwhile, the NGA was very successful in convincing the federal government to channel the funds to the National Guard through the state governments. Lack of preparedness of the Militia led the national government to pass the Dick Act of 1903 to convert the Militia into organized Militia or National Guard. Before the Dick Act of 1903, the National Guard only consisted of ill-equipped and poorly training soldiers, and there was a lack of uniformly enforced militia policy in the United States. During 19th century, "National Guard was not standardized across the nation because they are poorly organized and poorly equipped." (Stentiford, P 8, 2002).

In 1900, the National Guard only consisted of 116,542 officers, and the number of regular army just composed of 60,000 soldiers. However, there were series of call from different quarters to increase the total number of the regular army. On the other hand, advocates from another quarter argued that large standing army was inconsistence with the traditional American political beliefs and there was a need to increase the number of National Guard. Advocates of National Guard argued that properly trained and manned National Guard could augment the number of regular army during national emergencies. With lack of well-trained personnel within the National Guard and lack of equipment for the combat, it was revealed that the National Guard was not ready for the operational readiness.

Since 1900, National Guard has undergone series of transformation and changes. In 1900, the component of National Guard was just over 100,000 poorly equipped and ill-trained forces. The unique role of National Guard before 1916 was to perform state duty during civil disturbances and natural disaster. In the 20th Century, National had responded up to eight national emergencies.

To improve the effectiveness of the National Guard, Dick Act of 1903 was passed to transform all military units into organized companies and regiment of National Guard. With passage of Dick Act in 1903, National Guard units received increased in equipment and funding to enable them to conform to federal standard. The Dick Act was aimed to promote the efficiency of the National Guard and the National Guard was officially reorganized and became a partner of the regular army.

"Under the Dick Act, the National Guard organization was to be identical to the regular army. The National Guard, as anticipated by the Constitution's framers, was now a military reserve ready to serve the national interest. The National Guard, while getting large amounts of federal funds and growing in size, continued to struggle to find its true role in military operations and readiness. The natural disasters and civil disorder incidents in which Guardsmen were called to help supported their cause. These included such events as the San Francisco earthquake in 1906; over 21 times" (Smith 1990 P. 11-12).

In Florida, National Guard served the role of preventing the lynching of black, and they maintained order during worker strike in several states. Despite the Dick Act, the National Guard became less favorable before many Americans. Typically, when citizens went into labor strikes across the country and action taken by the undisciplined National Guard against the strikers was very questionable. Typically, National Guard underwent massive massacre of citizens during the Colorado labor strike known as Ludlow Massacre. In April 20, 1914, the National Guard fired at miners who were on strike and the miners fired back, and at dusk, the National Guard set fires on the tents and killed 13 people with gunfire. The action of the National Guard made the miners to fire back. Eventually, President Wilson set federal troop to restore the order. (Groark, 2004). With the conduct of the National Guard during that period, it was revealed that the National Guard was still ill trained.

Despite the conduct of National Guard, Dick Act of 1903 had immediate impact on the National Guard, and by 1911, National Guard had a reformed standard units of infantry, coast artillery, field artillery and engineer. (Doubler. 2011). With the Dick Act, the federal government disbursed funds for the National Guard, and with the federal aid, National Guard was able to improve on their training and organization. By 1911, National Guard has been reformed into the standard units of infantry. The flood of new weapons strengthens the National Guard and by the end of 1916, the National Guard grew to 132,194 soldiers. In 1908, there was an important amendment to the Dick Act. The Dick Act stated that National Guard force were mandated to go to war as units, and a division of Militia Affairs was created within the War Department with the overall responsibility for the administration of National Guard. To ensure that National Guard was fully prepared for war, they were placed under the direct control of the Army chief of staff.

Despite the preparedness of the United States for the internal and external aggression, American watched Europe plunged into World War 1 in August 1914, and within 12 months, the fighting degenerated into a bloody stalemate. With the fear that the United States might be drawn into the bloody World War 1, many counties started the preparedness movement and emphasized the readiness of America in the case of war. The War Department in Washington advocated for a Continental Army in order to build a suitable army for the European warfare. With the intensity of fighting in Europe, it was revealed that National Guard lacked the preparedness for the modern war. Thus, a suitable means to organized large army for the war generated a sharp debate and the arguments favored the National Guard leading the federal government to pass National Defense Act of 1916. (Doubler, Listman, & Goldstein, 2007, Doubler, 2011).

To enhance greater understanding of the operational preparedness of National Guard after the National Defense Acts of 1916 and 1920, the study develops the research hypothesis and null hypothesis.

H1: "The National Defense Acts of 1916 and 1920 help mature the National Guard into an operational ready force to be called upon anytime during natural or man-made disasters. The National Defense Acts of 1916 and 1920 was also needed in order to establish the National Guard as a force to augment the regular Army in times of crisis that may require for quick mobilization for overseas missions. This established a dual role for the National Guard, now the Guard was recognized as a force to be called upon for both domestic and foreign missions."

H0: "The National Defense Acts of 1916 and 1920 does not help the National Guard to mature into an operational ready force to be called upon anytime during natural or man-made disasters. The National Defense Acts of 1916 and 1920 was also not needed in order to establish the National Guard as a force to augment the regular Army in times of crisis that may require for quick mobilization for overseas missions. This does not establish a dual role for the National Guard, now the Guard was recognized as a force to be called upon for both domestic and foreign missions."

To test the hypotheses, the study explores the National Guard operational preparedness after the National Defense Acts of 1916 and 1920. The study also makes a comparison of the operational readiness of National Guard before 1916 and after 1916.

National Defense Act of 1916

The National Defense Act of 1916 was very important in the history of National Guard, and Defense Act of 1916 came because of preparedness movement that swept all over the United States. Fundamental objective of Defense Act of 1916 was to prepare the United States for modern war. The Act specifically designated the National Guard to serve as primary reserve for the regular Army, and the State militias was abolished and all units were designated as National Guard. With Defense Act of 1916, Congress increased the funding on the National Guard and authorized the expansion of National Guard to 450,000. The law also allowed the National Guard forces to take dual oaths for the national duties as well as using them for the oversea duties. (Whiteclay, 2000). "The act stated that the National Guard was an integral part of the Army of the United States when in federal service. However, when they were called out through the governors, the Guardsmen remained within the organized militia under the control of the state." (Smith 1990 P. 12)

The Defense Act of 1916 greatly increased the power of federal government over the National Guard and the National Guard was to respond both the state and federal government. Typically, the Act recognized the National Guard as an integral part of regular army. To enhance the preparedness of National Guard, the Act doubled the training required for the National Guard forces and the federal government made funds readily available to enhance the effectiveness of National Guard. With increase in the power of National Guard with the Defense Act 1916, there were several indications to show the operational readiness of the National Guard.

First, within 15 days after the passage of Defense Act 1916; the National Guard was called upon to defend the territorial integrity of the United States. In 1915, tension between the United States and Mexico tremendously increased because of the civil war that raged in Mexico. Pancho as a dominant warlord during the period conducted cross boarder raid at American Mexican boarder and the holocaust resulted to the killing of 17 Americans.

"In response, President Woodrow Wilson ordered a large punitive expedition into northern Mexico to track down the bandits. He asked the governors of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to provide additional Guardsmen for border protection. By May 11, 5,260 Guardsmen were headed for the border." (Doubler, 2011 P. 5).

By 11 May 1916, the total number of 5,260 Guardsmen was mobilized for the Mexican boarder. Under the command of Brigadier General John. J, the Guardsmen made slow progress. However, the Mexican government feared that the U.S. forces were penetrating into the Mexican territorial integrity warned Brigadier General John to cease advancing. With the fear that further advancement of the National Guard forces could lead to war; President Wilson ordered a partially stop of the advancement of National Guard and partially called-up them on June 18, 1916. President Wilson called-up the National Guard because of the critical shortage of equipment and transportation largely impeded the mobilization. Within few days, the problem was abated, and over 112,000 Guardsmen were along the Mexican border. Although, the National Guard did not engage in a military combat with Mexico, the mobilization proved very valuable making the National Guard to be familiar with practical field experience. The mobilization also provided the valuable experience for the states. The experience of Mexican and the U.S. conflicts also made

"the states also became familiar with the complexities of moving great numbers of troops, and commanders received experience in handling large troop formations. Individual Guardsmen also benefited from better training and physical conditioning. By the early spring of 1917 the crisis had passed, and most Guardsmen headed home only to face an even greater emergency." (Doubler, 2011 P. 5).

Another indication to reveal the operational readiness of National Guard after the Defense Act of 1916 was the breaking out of the World War 1 leading the government to mobilize the National Guard into the battlefield. By early 1917, tensions between the United States and Republic of Germany were very high and had erupted into open hostilities. To assist European allies, America declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.When American forces arrived at the battlefield, and the exhausted allied armies largely welcomed American forces. Large reinforcement of Americans arrived at the Western Front in August 1917, and the National Guard forces formed the bulk of American forces deployed into the battlefield during the World War 1. Since the total of 66,594 National Guard were still serving at Mexican border, however, over a period of week, the Guard units intensified effort to mobilize National Guard units, and by August 5, 1917, all 379,701 Guardsmen in 16 divisions were mobilized across the nation. The Guardsmen were mobilized for training, and organized for combat. There was a rush to get American forces into the battlefield, the National Guard 26 Yankee Division and Army's first Division arrived in France. The third National Guard Division known as 42d Rainbow Division were drawn from 26 states in the United States and from the District of Columbia. (Doubler, Listman, & Goldstein, 2007).

Despite the eagerness of American troop to enter into the battlefield, Pershing, who was the commander of he American Expeditionary Force (AEF) insisted that the troop must receive thorough training before being mobilized into trenches. However, in March 1918, a large German offensive troop prompted the early commitment of American troop into the battlefield, and by 1918, the 26th and 42nd Divisions of the National Guard were launched into the battlefield. During weeks of severe fighting in the St. Mihiel Salient, the Ramieres Wood and along the Marne River, Guardsmen showed the fighting ability on the Western Front. In September, Pershing committed the American Expeditionary Force to the clearing of the St. Mihiel Salient. The National Guard men distinguished themselves in the battlefield by successfully attacking the heavily defended German sector in Argon Forest. Apart from White Guardsmen, Black Guardsmen also distinguished themselves on the battlefield.

"The famous 369th Infantry fought under French command where it earned the nickname "Hell Fighters from Harlem --, was awarded the French Croix de Guerre and suffered more losses than any other American black regiment. At the beginning of World War I, approximately 100 qualified Guard pilots were available for service. Though no National Guard aviation unit went to war, Guard flyers made important contributions. For example, Col. Raynal C. Bolling, the original commander of New York's 1st Aero Company, helped to establish training centers in Europe for American fliers." (Doubler, 2011 P. 6).

By the end of the First World War in November 1918, American Expeditionary Force had increased to 2.1 millions. Out of 433,478 Guardsmen served during World War 1, 103,721 Guardsmen were killed and wounded making 43% of American causalities."However, the German High Command considered eight American divisions especially effective; six of those were National Guard." (Doubler, 2011 P. 6).

Despite the effort of National Guard in the Word War 1 (WW1), it was revealed that National Guard still lacked the operational preparedness required to deploy the National Guard to the oversea missions. With 43% of American causalities during WW1, the federal government believed that it was very critical to make a new law to enhance operational preparedness of National Guard for both overseas mission and for the national assignment. In 1920, National Defect Act was passed into law.