Role and Importance of Effective

¶ … Role and Importance of Effective Feedback in Training

The objective of this study will be to identify the importance of feedback in training and to identify its role, that is, how it functions and what effect it has on training. In addition I intend to identify what the attributes of effective feedback are and the methods for giving effective feedback to trainees. These are all interrelated, and there are dependencies to consider. It is necessary to understand the role of feedback in training, whether that feedback is positive or negative in results, before its importance can be assessed. The attributes of effective feedback for training must be identified and defined before methods for delivering it can be devised.

The importance of this study is highlighted by the increase in training programs in industry and the public sector in response to the needs of employees and management. In today's fast paced and rapidly changing world. Learning has become a lifelong process as people must constantly upgrade skills and learn new processes and techniques related to new technology and business practices.

Several factors are forcing industry to commit to training these days: technological innovation; downsizing and re-engineering; modern management practices; a nationally poor public education system that isn't producing a capable pool of potential employees; and new workplace laws and regulations. Other training needs impacting the worker and the workplace are those which accommodate state and Federal regulations (such as sexual harassment or cultural diversity sensitivity). ("Ineffective Training Kills the Bottom Line" 1998)

The questions to be answered here are:

What role does feedback play in training?

What is the importance of feedback in training?

What are the attributes of effective feedback for training?

What methods can be devised for delivering effective feedback for training?

In reviewing the available literature on this topic I have selected a list of publications which are likely to contain helpful information. These include books and journal articles on training and a few magazine and newspaper articles on training. I especially sought out four types of literature: manuals or resource texts on training and its methods, documented case studies of effective and ineffective training, research articles concerning training methods and news concerning methods of training. Within these I intend to find how feedback fits into the training picture. To this end I have consulted the following resources:

Annotated Bibleography

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Billett, Stephen. Learning in the Workplace: Strategies for Effective Practice. Crows Nest, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin, 2001.

This book covers the writer's experiences and reasoned judgments concerning learning in the workplace via training and mentor programs. It is aimed at proving the value of on-the-job training. The value of feedback is mentioned several times, but never really explored or defined. The types of feedback are not included, and no mention is made of negative feedback. It merely says that feedback is valuable in coaching.

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Bravin, Jonathan. "Training 1990: A Video Odyssey." Security Management Dec. 1989: 54+.

This journal article covers the subject of security training, especially for the best methods. It concentrates on Interactive Video Discs as its chosen "best," explaining why and including some sound educational theory, especially some concerning the value of immediate positive feedback

Building a Strong Reputation in Skills Training." Evening Chronicle (Newcastle, England): 37.

This is a short newspaper article describing the progress of a particular government funded training program. It does not give much news about the program and has no discussion of theory or methodology.

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Campbell, Brett. "Job Training That Works." The Progressive Aug. 1993: 14.

This is very short newspaper article about the Quest training program in Texas: its inception, reason for being and success to date. It does not include any education information or theory.

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Carlson, Dawn S., et al. "Training Motivation in Organizations: An Analysis of Individual-Level Antecedents [*]." Journal of Managerial Issues 12.3 (2000): 271.

This journal article covers the effectiveness of training in organizations and correlates them with the positive attitudes and self-efficacy (the perception of the learner of the level at which he or she can learn effectively) learners and the positive corporate support. The article describes a research project to uncover the value of these three things to a training program's success, and the relationships among them. It does not mention methodology of the actual training at all.

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Davis-Russell, Elizabeth, and Connell F. Persico, eds. The California School of Professional Psychology Handbook of Multicultural Education, Research, Intervention, and Training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002.

This book is aimed at the training clinical psychologist and the trainers, seeking to explore the methods for creating multicultural curriculum and programs, training psychologists and developing effective intervention. It was created as a handbook for MERIT: Multicultural Education, Research, Intervention, and Training after a research project in Napa, California by students at the named school.

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Desai, Mayur S., Thomas Richards, and John Paul Eddy. "End-User Training: A Meta Model." Journal of Instructional Psychology 26.2 (1999): 74.

This article documents part two of the results of an industrial study of training using IBT vs CBT training modules. While methodology was mentioned, it was not adequately covered and feedback was not mentioned at all.

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Desai, Mayur S., Thomas Richards, and John Paul Eddy. "Training Systems Management Implications." College Student Journal 33.4 (1999): 501.

This article is part one of a training study on the use of IBT vs CBT in industrial and corporate settings. It also discussed methodology but only details the actual training delivery methods. It does, however, give an excellent definition of education vs. training.

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Eldering, Lotty, and Paul P.M.Leseman, eds. Effective Early Education: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. New York: Falmer Press, 1999.

This book covers the theories and problems in early childhood education, especially as concerns language acquisition. Its purpose is to enhance early childhood education and to account for such variables as culture, language, poverty and handicaps.

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Everett, Gregory E., D. Joe Olmi, Ron P. Edwards, and Daniel H. Tingstrom. "The Contributions of Eye Contact and Contingent Praise to Effective Instruction Delivery in Compliance Training." Education & Treatment of Children 28.2 (2005): 48+.

This journal article discusses a research project proving the importance of eye contact and positive feedback in the form of praise in the efficacy of compliance training with young children. While the research certainly proved the importance of eye contact and praise, it has little significance to this paper due to the youthfulness of the participants.

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Fluck, Jill C. "Computer-Based Programs: Pennsylvania's Cost-Effective Approach to Staff Training." Corrections Today Dec. 2005: 64+.

This journal article describes the highly successful SPECAT program in Pennsylvania. There are some relevant portions here about the design of computer-based training and the importance of feedback. In fact, the feedback in this case is unique and especially apropos for computer training.

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Gardner, James E. Choosing Effective Development Programs: An Appraisal Guide for Human Resources and Training Managers. New York: Quorum Books, 1987.

This book is a guide for human resources and training managers. Chapter three introduces motivation and chapter four is highly relevant to this paper as it is all about the value of feedback.

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Gerber, Rod, and Colin Lankshear, eds. Training for a Smart Workforce. London: Routledge, 2000. This book is highly relevant to this paper. It includes pedagogical information specifically aimed at work place training. There is a lot of information concerning efficient training design, components of effective training and program evaluation.

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Gitter, Robert J. "Job Training in Europe: Lessons from Abroad." Monthly Labor Review 115.4 (1992): 25+.

This journal article describes the value and efficacy of European training programs, but does not mention much about how they are designed and offers no theoretical information on the design of the programs.

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Glenn, Russell W., et al. Training the 21st Century Police Officer: Redefining Police Professionalism for the Los Angeles Police Department / . Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2003.

This book is a detailed study of the redesign of the training programs for the LAPD. It includes a lot of excellent information for police training and a large number of charts and graphs. It would be especially valuable to someone studying police training, but includes little about the theoretical basis and methodology of training per se.

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Graham, Hugh Davis. Creating, Implementing, and Managing Effective Training and Development: State-of-the-Art Lessons for Practice. Ed. Eduardo Salas. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002.

This is an excellent book concentrating upon the development of effective corporate training programs. It includes theoretical information, components of effective training design, means of assessing programs and considerable useful knowledge on training effectively.

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Gray, George R., Mckenzie E. Hall, Marianne Miller, and Charles Shasky. "Training Practices in State Government Agencies." Public Personnel Management 26.2 (1997): 187+.

This is a journal article on the cost effectiveness and return on investment for training in state government agencies. It covers the methods and theoretical basis for assessment of programs, but does not specifically cover effective program components.

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Heckman, James J. "Doing it Right: Job Training and Education." Public Interest Spring 1999: 86+.

This journal article assesses the value of offering parents choices in the education of their children. It compares the cost effectiveness and the relative value of training vs. education to the clients.

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Holton Iii, Elwood F., Reid a. Bates, and Sharon S. Naquin. "Large-Scale Performance-Driven Training Needs Assessment: A Case Study." Public Personnel Management 29.2 (2000): 253.

This case study covered the assessment of needs for government performance driven training programs on a large scale for annual implementation and continual availability to employees. The purpose of this paper is to report on the methodology developed and the pilot implementation.

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Hornik, Bryan. "Listening to Experience: 10 Steps to Successful Online Training; How Do You Reap the Benefits of Online Training While Avoiding the Pitfalls That Can Derail a Program? A Safety Training Expert Offers a Proven Strategy for Success." Occupational Hazards Apr. 2004: 41+.

This is an excellent journal article covering the selection of online training programs. It covers the methodology of choosing and implementing these programs in a useful cost-effective manner and how to implement continual assessment of programs. It does not cover pegagogy.

Ineffective Training Kills the Bottom Line." USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education) Dec. 1998: 14.

This magazine article from USA Today details how poor training programs are not only not cost effective, but are actually counter productive. It does not include methodology.

Informal but Effective Learning." Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales): 6.

This journal article examines informal learning in a small business setting and assesses the value of training programs.

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Kozlowski, Steve W.J., et al., eds. Improving Training Effectiveness in Work Organizations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997.

This book is a very helpful guide to improving the effectiveness of training on the job. It details methodology, assessment practices and pedagogical theories.

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Laird, Dugan. Approaches to Training and Development. Reading, MA: Perseus Books, 1985.

This book covers all the aspects of creating a training program, and includes considerable information concerning feedback.

Leonard, D.C. (2002). Learning Theories, a to Z. Westport, CT: Oryx Press. Retrieved October 16, 2006

This is a reference to use for the definition of terms in learning theory.

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Long, Donna, and Renee Perrin. "Successful Training on a Shoestring Budget." Public Management Apr. 2005: 28+.

This journal article covers how to create efficient training programs on a tight budget.

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Salas, Eduardo, et al. "A Methodology for Enhancing Crew Resource Management Training." Human Factors 41.1 (1999): 161.

This journal article is aimed at the airline industry and the problem of improving crew performance with training. Sources for methodologies and pedagogical theory are included, but the precepts are not discussed.

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Salas, Eduardo, Clint a. Bowers, and Eleana Edens, eds. Improving Teamwork in Organizations: Applications of Resource Management Training. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001.

This book is centered upon improving the training for airline personnel, but it discusses the importance of feedback throughout the book. Actual pedagogical theory is not covered as a subject in itself, but the suggested procedures and assessments are based upon sound training principles and training methodology. It is aimed at a non-academic audience to help airline HR people devise better training programs and is written more in a prose format than a textbook or academic work.

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Salas, Eduardo, and Janis a. Cannon-Bowers. "THE SCIENCE of TRAINING: A Decade of Progress." Annual Review of Psychology (2001): 471.

This journal article covers the advances made in training during the decade from 1991-2001 and indicates the new methodologies develops, new information derived from research and changes in the industry. It include information about the best training and its components, including feedback.

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Salt, Allan. "Training Programs: The Key to Achieving ILO Goals." Monthly Labor Review 117.9 (1994): 32+.

This journal article covers the history, development and value in international training programs to international economies. It includes what types of training with what attributes are the most cost effective and give the most return on investment and even covers who will support the cost. However, there is little actual pedagogical information provided.

Serving Up Training: Sometimes the Most Effective Training Involves Only a Few Practical Principles." T&D May 2003: 35+.

This journal article details the process in the creation of the "steps" guides created for customers and employees in Zingerman's deli. It is business oriented and does not cover actual methods.

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Sexton, David, et al. "Early Intervention Inservice Training Strategies: Perceptions and Suggestions from the Field." Exceptional Children 62.6 (1996): 485+.

The purpose of this study was to examine the current status of inservice training strategies experienced by early interventionists and their perceptions about the link between training methods and, actual practice changes. More specifically, this descriptive study addressed two research questions: What are the inservice training experiences as reported by a sample of early intervention service providers? What is the perceived relative effectiveness of various training methods in promoting actual practice changes as reported by these service providers?"

Sexton et al.) Pedagogy is not covered.

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Sims, Ronald R. "Developing the Learning Climate in Public Sector Training Programs." Public Personnel Management 21.3 (1992): 335+.

This article covers both the need for new training programs in the public sector, but also the valuable characteristics sought and their justification. It is aimed at training developers for the public sector.

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Sims, Ronald R. "The Enhancement of Learning in Public Sector Training Programs." Public Personnel Management 22.2 (1993): 243+.

This journal article covers how to improve public sector training programs, including certain methods which are often missing is training. Sims emphasizes that sound pedagogical theory and methodology must still underlie training programs, just as in educational settings, because the learning process is still based upon them.

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Sims, Ronald R. "Evaluating Public Sector Training Programs." Public Personnel Management 22.4 (1993): 591+.

This journal article give excellen guidelines for evaluating public sector training programs which could easily be applied to all training programs. He covers how to evaluate both the return on investment and the methodology and effectiveness of the programs.

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Sims, Ronald R. An Experiential Learning Approach to Employee Training Systems. New York: Quorum Books, 1990.

This book is a collection of the research Sims has done concerning training programs, especially in the public sector. He includes considerable useful information on pedagogical methodology and the usefulness of feedback both to the trainees and the training designer.

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Sims, Ronald R. Reinventing Training and Development. Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 1998.

This book makes suggestions for modifiying training methods to match the current needs of employers. It covers both the developments in educational theory and the changes in industry which require modification of training programs. Sims supplies methods for evaluation and assessment of programs and covers the changes which have made modification imperative.

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Sims, Ronald R., and Serbrenia J. Sims. "Improving Training in the Public Sector." Public Personnel Management 20.1 (1991): 71+.

This article examines how to provide improved training in the pubic sector and the factors which affect training. Sims especially concentrates upon the matching of learning styles among the trainers, trainees and the methodology and materials in the programs.

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Statt, David a. Using Psychology in Management Training: The Psychological Foundations of Management Skills. London: Routledge, 2000.

This book examines the pedagogy and methodology which is useful in management training. Statt covers a range of pedagogical and methodological theories and how they apply to management training. He includes the underlying theories.

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Wheelan, Susan a. Facilitating Training Groups: A Guide to Leadership and Verbal Intervention Skills. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1990.

This book is a guide to training facilitation in business. Ms. Wheelan has identified a factor she titles verbal intervention, which often equates with feedback. She coved the underlying pedagogical theory and methodology attached.

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York, Darlene Eleanor. Cross-Cultural Training Programs. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1994.

This book covers the problems and needs of cross-cultural training programs. It deals with the unique problems caused by the mixture of different cultures in creating and implementing effective training programs. It does not cover generic pedagogical theory or methodology.

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Zaleznik, a. Foreman Training in a Growing Enterprise. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1951.

This research is an attempt to direct a critical inquiry into the assumptions in back of supervisory training compared with the problems which confront supervisors on the job. The starting point is an acceptance of the fundamental objective of training which is to help supervisors behave more effectively." It does not cover basic educational or training theory, but concentrates upon the differences between this and other types of training.

Of these resources I have selected those with information pertaining to my selected area of study for this project, and these are cited as sources at the end of this article.

I will next discuss training and its methodology. First I need to define training, as opposed to education. An interesting definition was found in a journal article: Training is an activity related to the job and oriented toward problem solving; whereas education is preparation for a defined job in the near future. This implies that corporations will find new ways of providing training to keep abreast of advancing Information Technology (it).

Desai, Richards, and Eddy 501) it is in the needs and their origins which creates this difference.

Since the trainee's learning needs arise from their own experience, the main goal of training learning is to apply new knowledge, skills, and abilities to the solution of the trainee's practical problems."

Sims)

When designing training the trainer needs to consider a number of variables: purpose, logistical restrictions, audience characteristics and measurement of results. After documenting the exact purpose of the training, the content can be selected to suit both the purpose of the raining and the target audience. Next the outcome measurement must be designed to truly identify if the desired results have been obtained. Finally the methodology of the training needs to be created. It includes cognitive and developmental theory and early intervention methodology and success prediction.

Effective teaching and effective training have a lot in common. The underlying theory of learning processes is much the same. The effective methods for teaching remain the same. The major differences are the motivation of the learner, the nature of the content, the predominance of learning content which is best acquired by process, since it is generally skills based, rather than domain knowledge based. The focus of training is generally much more narrow than for education, but the depth of learning desired may be quite a lot deeper than in education. It is rather like studying driving to pass a test of the domain knowledge required or learning to drive. The second generally requires a lot more practice. This is a key element to this paper.

Most effective strategies are created around four basic principles: (a) They present relevant information or concepts to be learned; (b) they demonstrate the KSAs to be learned; - they create opportunities for trainees to practice the skills; and (d) they provide feedback to trainees during; and after practice. Because there is no single method to deliver training, researchers continue to address how to best present targeted information to trainees."

Salas, and Cannon-Bowers 471)

So by this article, in agreement with other sources, we can see that the methods most important to effective training are relevance, demonstration, practice and feedback. "When identifying new resource management skills, organizations need to address the assessment, diagnosis, feedback, and additional practice required to strengthen team-level skills."

Seamster, and Kaempf 17)

Although incorporating these principles of learning is desirable, many agency training programs do not have them or are designed without consideration of individual learning differences, motivation, learning curves and plateaus, reinforcement, feedback, and goal setting. Nevertheless, application of these principles of learning can increase the potential learning that occurs during training as well as program effectiveness and benefits to an agency."

Sims)

They are all of equal importance to an effective training program, and must all be present. This identifies feedback as, at least, having a one in for importance factor among the essentials of effective training, but the word "essential" changes that perspective to one of "feedback is absolutely necessary," no matter how you measure it.

If the material is not relevant to the trainees' needs it will be a useless waste of time and money.

The skills to be acquired or strengthened must be identified and demonstrated. In addition, the tasks to be completed and practiced must be demonstrated.

Practice is the best way to acquire procedural knowledge and skills. Anything "learned" will be lost is the trainee does not have the opportunity to practice the skills in a timely manner.

Feedback is essential to help the trainees identify strengths and weaknesses so they do not waste time on what they know and miss learning what they do not know. In addition, feedback will strengthen or weaken motivation and resolve. Feedback from the trainees is also essential to identify their perception of their learning and to help make modifications to the program to improve the processes or outcomes.

By this we can assume that feedback to the trainee is highly important to effective training, and feedback from the trainee is essential to identify problems and make the programs better.

The ability to modify the training program based on feedback gained through ongoing evaluation. Corrective feedback is crucial when modifying or upgrading subsequent stages of the training program." (Sims 1998)

So we can safely say that feedback from trainees can help create more effective training programs. However, the feedback to the trainee is far more important, as it is a major element to facilitate the learning and provide self-assessment to the trainees.

While feedback to the creators and implementers of the programs is important to the creation and modification of the programs, feedback to the trainee was considered a major necessity to facilitate the learning in all the articles cited. Learning does not really take place until it is used in some way, even if that use is only sharing.

So we know that feedback is a major component of effective training, but the types and methods for feedback are equally important. In all the sources consulted, positive feedback was listed as essential and negative feedback was detrimental to the learning process and results. The importance of feedback occurs as early as the initial interview process of the trainees by the trainer. "The key to the interview process is the establishment of trust and rapport, in order to insure more accurate, thoughtful feedback."

Wheelan 4) it remains essential all during the training process.

This is because it is an integral part of human psychological needs. "The self-concept is formed in the process of interacting with other people. From the moment of birth people respond, as we noted above, to an infant's behaviour and the infant reacts in turn." (Statt 2000) Statt Also says that feedback is crucial to the learning process.

Implicit in our discussion of learning in Chapter 2 is how crucially important feedback is to the learning process. This is a particular example of that process in which having knowledge of results provides someone with the information necessary to judge how she is doing in the pursuit of her goal. Moreover having that information may in itself help to strengthen her motivation to make further progress (Locke et al., 1981). Adding feedback like this to the setting of goals has been found to be most effective in improving performance; more than either factor by itself and much more than using neither factor (Nemeroff and Cosentino, 1979)." (Statt, 2000, p. 68)

So we have proven the importance of feedback to the training process and outcomes. However, there are two major types of feedback: positive and negative. These designations are based upon the effects of the feedback, rather than the content. That is because it is the effects in which we are interested. Most feedback has some negative content, or the trainee would not need to learn. However, it is in the presentation of the feedback that negative content becomes either positive or negative in effect.

The nature of feedback is controlled by how the trainee will both receive it and how it will affect the learning. Positive feedback identifies both strengths and weaknesses so that the trainee does not perceive it to be critical. Positive feedback increases motivation and raises the self-esteem of the trainee, which makes him or her more confident of the ability to master the desired material or skills.

Feedback is also necessary at different places during the training process. During the interview of the trainee, the feedback from the trainee can give the trainer the necessary knowledge to identify the possible best learning style for the trainee. It also identifies the trainee's level of confidence. Feedback from the trainer at this juncture can raise that confidence and it can also be used to further explore the trainee's learning style. During this discussion, the trainer can describe the methodology of the training and the desired results. The trainee will then have a more clear idea of the possible usefulness of the training and this can boost the motivation. In addition to the identification of the goals, the trainee can gain an understanding of how the methodology will fit with his or her learning style.

During the training feedback is critical to identifying the progress of the training. At the beginning an assessment of skills and knowledge can provide information on where to focus the training. The trainee needs to be provided with feedback concerning this assessment so he or she knows exactly what was measured and what was found. Then the trainee can set proper goals also.

Depending upon the type of training, positive feedback can do many things. If skills are being learned by practice, then feedback on the relative success of the practice is important for setting goals for the next move. If possible feedback on the relative improvement from the last try and from the beginning is also useful. It allows the trainee to see his or her improvement rather than concentrating on not having done it right again. Since the increments between tries may be small, providing the overall improvement factor may be more encouraging. Failure should not be mentioned. Instead, improvement should be stated and suggestions made to add even more improvement.

In computer training the feedback can be fine tuned to do many things. Some programs are so cleverly designed that they modify the next items according to the previous response. This can be used to reinforce learning or strengthen understanding until the ideas are grasped. Some driver training programs use this to help trainees "discover" their own mistakes. In addition, the wrong answers in things like spelling and such can be avoided on the display, so the trainee never sees the wrong response, and it does not get imprinted. Computer feedback is NEVER impatient, so it often has advantages over human feedback, but it is not as trusted.

This is another attribute of the value and nature of feedback. Feedback from a trusted source has more power and is also more likely to be perceived as positive in nature. However, if the source is not trusted, the results can range from ambivalence to distinctly negative reactions. This is why a human trainer enhances the training, even is most of the work is done on a computer. The trainees still trust the human feedback more.

So how does one know what feedback to provide and when? How can the trainer be certain that the feedback will be effective? Attitude is critical for this. The trainer needs to see the work as separate from the trainee and take great care only to criticize THIS work and make it vary clear to the trainee that the positive and negative comments are only applicable to this particular time and this part of the work. The trainer should avoid any statements which can be interpreted as applying to the person. This is doubly true if the trainer does not particularly like or respect the trainee. Any attitude on the part of the trainer is subject to show, and have positive or negative effects. Therefore, if a trainer perceives that he or she is not positively impressed with the trainee, some considerable reassessment may be in order, the trainer should identify why he or she is negatively impacted by the trainee. Often this alone is enough to modify the impact and change the attitude, when the trainer realizes that he or she is reacting to something on a personal level, perhaps connotations, perhaps personal perceptions based upon insignificant factors or even to strangeness and difference (often when the trainee is from a very different culture). If the trainer is unable to make adjustments in order to provide useful positive feedback to the trainee, then a change in trainers may be necessary.