Machiavelli Published Posthumously in 1532,

Machiavelli

Published posthumously in 1532, Niccolo Machiavelli's the Prince offers succinct if not ruthless guidelines for leadership. The treatise exposes a political culture still extant centuries later: one rooted in the acquisition and maintenance of power and the preservation of the state. Political stability via a strong and charismatic central authority is the main goal of the Machiavellian philosophy.

For Machiavelli, virtue is defined in terms of results, and not in terms of a personal ethic. A Machiavellian ruler does whatever necessary for the health and well being of the state. Dishonesty or militarism may be parts of the leader's toolbox; and yet so might clemency (Chapter 17). Virtue is not based at all on the righteousness of a ruler's actions, but on the results of those actions. A Machiavellian ruler need not ascribe to any religious or moral code unless that code empowers the Prince. Therefore, virtue is not explicitly defined in terms of moral absolutes. Machiavelli's morality is conditional, and so is the author's definition of virtue.

Instead, virtue is measured in terms of the Prince's political prowess: the Prince's ability to maintain control over the state, to ward off invaders, prevent invasions, and to maintain law and order. Virtue is what makes the Prince an effective leader: even if he acts in ways that harm others. Virtue is the cause and the definition of a stable society. Therefore, Machiavellian virtue is results-based and not action-based.

Machiavellian political philosophy shares some features in common with utilitarianism, being focused on the greater good at the expense of what might be deemed deontologically just. Virtue is not measured by good deeds or by character traits, but by the ability to wield power wisely and effectively.

The Machiavellian Prince is virtuous because of his success as a stalwart ruler. A steadfast ruler staves off political enemies, maintains political borders, and keeps the peace via whatever means necessary. Virtue lies in the ability to carry out the duties of leadership with aplomb. The virtuous ruler might occasionally use force or alternatively, acts of overt kindness.

One of the hallmarks of the Prince's power is his being feared. Fear engenders allegiance to the Prince and thus the State. Fear also motivates the type of submissive political alliances that bolster state security. It is by far better to be feared than to be loved but the ultimate leadership virtue is to be both loved and feared (Chapter 17). By being loved a leader retains the trust and admiration of the people but by being feared a leader retains extensive power and control over others. The most effective rulers are those that achieve the fine balance. In Chapter 17, Machiavelli notes that a leader who is hated runs the risk of being overthrown. If the goal of the ruler is to maintain stability, law, and order, then he must at all costs engender trust. "A prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred,' (Chapter 17). Avoiding hatred is one of the most important ways to secure political power, notes Machiavelli. By appeasing citizens of the state, the ruler gains their trust and respect. Yet the ruler must take care to not let kindness become a signal of weakness.

Furthermore, the Machiavellian ruler does not seek to be loved or feared for personal gain, but for the good of the state only. The ethic of the ruler is one that places the good of the state ahead of all other possible concerns. Thus, a virtuous leader is not selfish. Egotism works to the Prince's advantage only insofar as it creates the powerful personality needed to maintain political dominance.

In Chapter 25 of the Prince, Machiavelli addresses the topic of fortune and its effect on rulers and their states. Machiavelli makes two main statements about fortune. First, the author claims that the good leader transcends fortune's vicissitudes. Free will, notes Machiavelli, trumps luck. Second, Machiavelli urges rulers to control and command fortune.

Fortune is female in the Prince for two reasons. One, females are associated with nature, and Machiavelli uses a metaphor from the natural world to describe fortune as a raging river: "which when in flood overflows the plains, sweeping away trees and buildings, bearing away the soil from place to place; everything flies before it, all yield to its violence, without being able in any way to withstand it," (Chapter 25). Two, fortune is female because men can control it using brute force. Females and fortune are depicted as wild, natural, and untamed. Rulers are by default male and therefore capable of harnessing the power of fortune.

Machiavelli's ascription of the female gender to fortune reflects the belief that women are inherently wild, dangerous, and untamed. Women are, moreover, physically weaker than their male counterparts and therefore unable to stand up to a physical assault. Machiavelli plainly states that "it is necessary to beat and ill-use her," for the good of the state (Chapter 25). The author also claims that women, and fortune, "allow" themselves "to be mastered" by an "adventurous" ruler (Chapter 25).

Just as it would have been deemed just to control a wife by use of force, Machiavelli would note that the virtuous leader must control his fortune. Fortune is female because females are powerful yet easy to control by force. The sexism inherent in the Machiavelli passage only reflects the patriarchy that characterizes almost all human societies. Similarly, Machiavelli's Prince is automatically male because the author assumes only a male would make a good ruler. Still, Machiavelli uses the female metaphor to equally criticize the foolishness of naive would-be princes. Toward the end of Chapter 25, the author notes that young men are much "less cautious" and less able to control their emotions. Not all men would make good rulers, notes Machiavelli. Those able to control their reactions, and others' reactions to them, are the ones best suited for the title of Prince.