Seventeenth and eighteenth century European theatre history

¶ … caviar of the court to the cries of the courtyard -- the popularization of drama from the 17th to the 18th century in Europe

Ham. I heard thee speak me a speech once, but it was never acted; or, if it was, not above once; for the play, I remember, pleased not the million; 'twas caviar to the general: but it was -- as I received it, and others, whose judgments in such matters cried in the top of mine -- an excellent play, well digested in the scenes, set down with as much modesty as cunning. (Shakespeare, "Hamlet," Act II, Scene 2)

This quote from the Jacobean era tragedy of Shakespeare perfectly sums up the characterization of the drama that was to follow the Shakespearean era of theater in 17th century England and France as well. During the courtly years of theater of the Restoration period in England, and in France, drama was "caviar for the general," not for the common people. From the raucous Elizabethan style theater in the open, the shift in theatrical content was no longer designed to "please the million" and this did not change until the rise of the middle class in the 18th century.

The first winds of European theatrical change in the 17th century were felt in England. The broad scope and concerns of Shakespeare, albeit ironically about a 'Prince' of Denmark was written by an untitled man for a theater directed to the populace, performed by professional actors who were patronized by royalty, but not directly involved in the social whirl of the court. After Cromwell's revolution, however, closed the theaters and upset the continuity of the theatrical profession, the Restoration was to herald in a new era of theater of the mind, not of the heart, of satire and in-jokes, rather than more broad human concerns. Initially, the alliance in England between royalists rather than the more democratic pro-Parliament Puritans, and the theatrical profession in the 17th century may seem odd. But one must remember, "As Puritanism advanced, the prosperity of the theatrical profession began to decline." For while King Charles and his Queen had manifested a great love for dramatic entertainments, even more so than his predecessors as he frequently took part in the Court Masques, the Puritans regarded theater as sinful. After Cromwell's ascension to power, the Lord Protector issued an imperative order. The order, by "threatening to imprison and punish as rogues" all who broke its enactments, limited all theatrical performances. "Close upon the heels of this second [order] came a third, which declared all players to be rogues and vagabonds, and authorized the justices of the peace to demolish all stage galleries and seats; any actor discovered in the exercise of his vocation should for the first offense be whipped, for the second be treated as an incorrigible rogue, and every person found witnessing the performance of a stage play should be fined five shillings." (Baker, 27-34)

No wonder that, when the civil wars shut the doors of the theaters, "many of the comedians, who had youth, spirit, and vigor of body, took up arms in defense of their royal master," namely the cause of Charles who had protected the theaters. "When they could no longer serve him by the profession of acting, they boldly vindicated his cause on the field." (Baker, 27-34) Meanwhile, in France, courtly theater flourished. In 1660 the Stuart dynasty was restored to the throne of England. Charles II, the king, had been in France during the greater part of the Protectorate, together with many of the royalist party, all of who were familiar with Paris and its fashions. (Bellinger 249-250)

By the time the theaters were reopened in England, Racine France had established the neo-classic standard for tragedy, a standard that dealt with lofty rather than middle-class concerns and was played at court, not in areas known as 'the liberties,' where the Globe in England had been located, on the outskirts of London. Moliere set the standard for French comedy. Although 17th century French theater was more gender inclusive in the sense that women performed in these dramas, as became the custom in English theater of the Restoration, these dramas were highly cerebral and based, such as Racine's "Phaedra," on sanitized versions ancient classical dramas. They were often confined to the Aristotelian unities of time and place and did not deal with other aspects of society. (Bellinger 249-250)

Comedy rather than directed to the groundlings like Shakespeare's wit, was often satirical. The theater was not outdoors, but indoors, and took place at night by candlelight rather than by day. This enabled people to literally be shut out of the spectacle and to confine the theatrical vision to a fixed place, time, and audience. Thus, of both French and English theater, most of the jokes were 'in-jokes' to the courtly audience, which was limited in number, social class, and milieu. (Bellinger 249-250)

There was perhaps greater cross-pollination of ideas between England and French courtly drama and comedy than between the English and French social classes of lower, middle, and upper, courtly 'crusts.' "For instance, the Restoration plays of France and England have direct parallels with one another. "The Plain Dealer" of the English Wycherley was a version "The Misanthrope" of Moliere. Both the English and French versions of the disenchanted hero centered on the falseness of society, but only as expressed through the view of the social and intellectual elite. "The heroes of the Restoration comedies were lively gentlemen of the city, profligates and loose livers, with a strong tendency to make love to their neighbors' wives," and many of the actresses such as Nell Gwynn may have been personally involved with the audience of the count as mistresses. (Bellinger 252-254) When country people appeared during the Restoration, they were frequently seen as "dull" husbands and fathers. The heroines are well bred, full of social ease, and are always witty, often, like Millament of Congreve's "Way of the World," are wittier than the heroes who court them.

But this comfortable ideological position of the court did not last for long. From the satirical, artificial and classical 17th century theater of the French and English court evolved the more public, popularly oriented theater of the 18th century. As noted in Brockett's History of the Theater's Chapter 11, "The Establishment of National Theatres, 1770-1800" in Germany set the stage for a more popular and populist theater in all of Europe. Rather than social theater of the court, brining the theater to the people forced a consideration of broader concerns beyond in-jokes.

The change in audience also necessitated a change in setting. As the court no longer formed the architectural 'space' of the theater, the proscenium stage brought forth the beginnings of realism, of creating a scene rather than an artfully constructed piece of rhetoric. Theatres also increased in size to accommodate new audiences. From seating 650 people during the Restoration to 1500 people by 1750, and the stage jutted out into the pit. This encouraged, as was popular in Shakespeare's time, the actors to 'play' to the popular sentiments and desires of the ordinary people sitting in the nearby seats, rather than to the enclosed galleries and boxes of the gentry. The greater connection between audience and actor facilitated more emotionally involved and less brittle and artificial dramas and comedies. (Wilson & Goldfarb, 1999)