Theories and core concepts in academic study

Theories

Sociology has been defined s the scientific study of human interaction and, as such, is accepted as a scientific activity (Leming 1997). Social science aims at discovering and explaining observed events of and in nature by means of a framework that can be tested. The goal of sociology is, therefore, to produce a body of knowledge that will provide not only an understanding of the causal processes influencing human behavior but also enable sociologists to predict social behaviors (Leming). As a science, it pursues observable and provable regularities and explains these regularities by means of a set of observable and provable propositions or statements of relationship (Leming). The very effectiveness or success of sociology lies precisely in the explanatory and predictive power of this body of knowledge derived from research.

The basic components or elements of a theory are a conceptual scheme, a set of propositions that states the relationships between variables, and a context for verification (Leming). The conceptual scheme consists of ideas that possess abstract properties not yet immediately verifiable by direct sensory observation. It also has a system of interrelated statements of relationships between variables, which seam the parts of the concept together. The conceptual scheme and the statements of relationships are joined together and organized under a paradigm (Leming).

A paradigm is the basic image of a particular subject matter within a science and serves as context for the verification (Leming 1997). It defines what should be studied and asked, how the questions should be posed and the rules to observe in interpreting the answers that will be obtained. It is the broadest unit of consensus within a science, which subsumes, defines and inter-relates the examples and/or variables, theories, methods, and instruments within it (Leming). Sociology is a multi-paradigm science in that there are many paradigms within the field, not a single one of which dominates that field. Some of the more popular theoretical paradigms or traditions are the structural-functional theory, the conflict theory and the symbolic interaction theory (Leming).

Sociology, like most other scientific disciplines, is a multi-paradigm science.

There is much debate over the number of paradigms existing within the field of sociology, yet sociologists would agree that no single paradigm is dominant within the discipline. Examples of these theoretical traditions include structural-functional theory, conflict theory, social exchange theory, and symbolic interaction theory.

Four principal functions of theory for social research were listed in relating theory and research (Parsons 1938 as qtd in Leming). Theory must state worthwhile "social facts" for research and there are no facts without theories. Theory must be capable of organizing research findings and conclusions. It must also be able to identify the gaps in scientific knowledge and provide suggestions for future research. And theory must provide the causality between concepts and the sets of interrelated propositions (Parsons as qtd in Leming). Merton (1967 as qtd in Leming) added three more functions of theory, i.e., as extending empirical generalizations as abstractions are formulated in a higher level, as supporting both the deduced proposition and that from which it is derived, and as introducing a stronger ground for prediction than mere empirical observation. Merton (1967 as qtd in Leming) also said that social research initiates, reformulates, deflects and clarifies a sociological theory.

On the other hand, empirical research both tests theoretically derived hypotheses and develops new ones through new observations (Leming 1997). It reformulates the theory and the variables with the infusion of new relevant data and extends the conceptual schemes in rendering the theory more encompassing. The relationship between theory and research is viewed as symbiotic: research is fundamental to theory construction and theory guides, and theory, in turn, renders research more fruitful and useful. Theory and research are, therefore, the most important elements in the conduct of social scientific inquiry (Leming).

Research in the natural sciences differs from that from social sciences essentially only in methodology (Rudner 1966 as qtd in Leming). Both the natural and social sciences utilize the empirical method, which is based on observation and reasoning, rather than on supernatural revelation, intuition, appeal to authority or individual speculation. The structural functional theory and the conflict theory, for example, focus on group actions and societal structures, as in the work of Dunheim (Leming). It concerned itself only with social facts and studied these as though they were things in themselves. It observed strict guidelines (Durkheim 1964 as qtd in Leming), which eliminated all preconceptions, considered only directly observed social facts, viewed these social facts as the product of group experience rather than individual actions, and the cause of any given social fact was sought in its preceding social facts.

The structural functional theory also explains the persistence of these social facts, social institutions and structures, while the conflict theory deals with the competition between the various parts, institutions and/or structures within a society and the coercive forces in it (Leming 1997).

It is generally accepted that sociology is the framework with which we see or view the world. An acceptable theory is systematic, more consistent and carefully considered than everyday explanations of personal experience and observation. It should at least be universal or applicable to varied situations, places and times (Leming 1997). No single theory can explain all the aspects of the social world and each must be tested under specific circumstances. Wallace and Wolf (1999) agree that an outstanding theory should be systematic, capable of comprehensively discussing social life and leads to new insights as well allows for the widest transmission of ideas to a wide audience. They also believed that it should establish some commonality in different social actions and events or a way of sorting out, organizing and classifying the numerous aspects of social life.

Wallace and Wolf also went through the various approaches to sociological theory and identified their areas of differences (1999). These are subject matter, assumptions, motivation for human actions, and scientific approach.

The main distinction in subject matter is between macro and micro theories. Macro addresses large structures of long historical build-up and which tend to change slowly. Structural functionalist and conflict theories are examples of macros (Wallace and Wolf 1999). Micro theory, on the other hand, considers social interaction of different individuals in small group settings and investigates these interactions in great detail. The macro and micro theories complement rather than contradict each other, since they use different methods and ask different questions.