Theories and theorists: an overview of major contributions

Criminology

Theories and Theorists

Theorists in the field of criminal justice:

Howard Becker and Robert Agnew

The field of sociology has been extremely influential in shaping our concept of criminal justice in the 20th century. Rather than focusing on biological or moral theories of why people commit crimes, criminology has begun to place more emphasis on how social pressures may shape the decision of an individual to engage in criminal behavior or to eschew it. Two of the most popular theories exemplifying this phenomenon are that of social labeling theory and strain theory.

Howard Becker's social labeling theory first rose to prominence during the 1960s. Becker suggested that criminals were not essentially different from other persons in the sense that they were more 'wicked' or pathological. Rather, society labels certain persons (because of race, sexuality, poverty, or other behaviors) as different. Rather arbitrarily, certain persons are deemed members of potentially 'criminal elements.' Alienated from mainstream society for various reasons, members of these groups come to see themselves as different and therefore internalize the sense that they are rule-breakers. In his book Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, "Becker (1963) uses the term 'outsider' to describe a labeled rule-breaker or deviant that accepts the label attached to them and view themselves as different from 'mainstream' society" (Howard Becker's labeling theory, 2013, FSU). Certain groups may be seen as inherently deviant, such as young African-American males, the poor, or even simply juveniles who do poorly in school. Eventually, the member of the labeled group may begin to engage in deviant actions because they are denied the positive social reinforcements of being in mainstream society. They may come to embrace the deviant label as a source of identity.

Rules are created, not because they are inherently right or wrong, but because they serve the interests of dominant social groups. "Rules are created by a moral entrepreneur, a person that takes the initiative to crusade for a rule that would right a society evil (Becker 1963)…The success of the crusade may lead to the entrepreneur to become a professional rule creator (Becker 1963). Becker (1963) states that the success of each moral crusade brings along with it a new group of outsiders, and a new responsibility of an enforcement agency" (Howard Becker's labeling theory, 2013, FSU). Of course, one objection to that theory might be that rules form a social function -- we need rules protecting us from the threat of murder or our property being taken. While this is true, Becker would point out that the penalties allotted to specific crimes do seem to serve certain social groups' interests more than others.

For example, white collar crimes are penalized less than blue collar crimes. Someone who commits fraud or insider trading might do just as much (if not more) economic damage than someone who robs a bank or bodega, but because of the fact that members of the more powerful social groups are more likely to engage in white collar crime, it is treated less harshly. Similarly, for many years, users of 'crack' cocaine received harsher sentences than users of powder cocaine, although the drug has the same effect. Poor persons tended to use crack, however, versus wealthier users. Thus, crack dealers and addicts were labeled as more deviant, and more apt to be driven into membership of the permanent criminal class.

Another influential theory in the field of criminal justice is that of Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory, as articulated in A revised strain theory of delinquency, which likewise stressed how social forces create the definitions of what constitutes a crime. Agnew's theory in the 1990s questioned earlier 'strain' theories which suggested that when people's aspirations were not being fulfilled and they perceived other social groups as 'getting ahead' more easily than themselves, this created the conditions for crime. "According to the original strain theory, an increase in aspirations and a decrease in expectations should lead to an increase in delinquency; however, this was not found to be the case (Agnew, 1985:152). Also, the original strain theory predicted a concentration of delinquent behavior in the lower class, but research proved that delinquency was also common in the middle and upper classes" (Robert Agnew's general strain theory, 2013, FSU). Agnew criticized earlier strain theorists for focusing too much on economic conditions, pointing out that was only one source of strain. Agnew conceptualized strain as more internally driven: it was not only the fact that society was unfair, but also how the criminal perceived his or her circumstances.

"There are three major types of strain according to general strain theory. They are the failure to achieve positively valued goals, the loss of positive stimuli, and the presentation of negative stimuli" (Robert Agnew's general strain theory, 2013, FSU). The failure to achieve goals may include monetary goals but also the loss of power and respect. The removal of positive stimuli (such as the loss of a job) can also cause strain. And the introduction of negative stimuli (such as a child who is abused) can increase the stressors upon the individual and increase the likelihood he or she would engage in criminal activities. Strain thus can be caused by a perceived gap between expectations and reality, but temperament and circumstances affect how that gap is perceived. Additionally, gender may also play a role in the perception of strain. Women may be more apt to blame themselves for disappointments and turn their frustrations on themselves while men are more apt to lash out violently.

Both Becker and Agnew propose relatively subjective theories of criminality, both of which are based in social analysis, not individual psychology alone. Becker stresses the importance of larger power interests determining what constitutes crime, highlighting the mutability of the definition of what constitutes a crime and a criminal person. Defining classes as 'criminal' becomes a self-fulfilling prophesy. In contrast, for Agnew, crime is much more of an individual phenomenon. Perceived expectations and personal disappointments can cause the sociological and psychological foundations which allow crime to fester.