An indepth analysis of diversity management

¶ … diversity in management?

Technological developments and the emergence of a universal, globalized economy have brought individuals from different societies closer than they have ever been. Hence, institutions like schools/colleges and corporations are seeking means to better cater to the entities constituting them. This encompasses the ability of attracting and retaining the finest and most capable workforce. Diversity deals entirely with difference. It implies: the presence of a broad array of different individuals; differences between them are on account of numerous variables including race/ethnicity, sex, religion, political beliefs, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, disability and ideologies (Rice, 2010). Companies capable of formulating and implementing requisite processes and strategies in this regard will enjoy a competitive edge over rivals, in addition to increased efficacy. Private sector models of competition are not exactly perfectly suited to public sector institutions as the latter lack a profit motive for existence. Nevertheless, public sector organizations ought to strive towards drawing in, hiring and retaining the cream of the labor force to accomplish their statutory goals, which constitute their bottom lines (Gore & National Partnership for Reinventing Government (U.S.), 2000). Evolving national demographics also impact its business sector and, successively, its economy.

For continued efficacy of governmental and commercial sectors, and motivation of citizens to play a part in constructing the abovementioned institutions, leaders should acknowledge and make the most of the diversity found across the nation. This is important because, for attaining success and maintaining a competitive edge, organizations should effectively draw on its most salient resource -- its human resources (Ardakani, Abzari, Shaemi & Fathi, 2016). The broadening of one\'s views and the utilization of creative approaches is imperative for success, given the increasingly rich global and workforce diversity now accessible to corporations. This research will determine best corporate practices with regard to harnessing a diverse workforce. All sorts of organizations can effectively implement such practices, and hence, top level executives need to pay heed to it. Managers have cultivated practice communities which accomplish and respect organizational workforce diversity. Such practices indicate that the firm is aware of the significance of appreciating and acknowledging diversity, to maintain an edge over competition. They are aware that the application of such practices improves productivity, sustained competitiveness, and efficacy.

With corporations\' increased reliance on teams for generating solutions necessary to sustain corporate success, a flood of research works have been published with regard to team composition for promoting superior performance levels. Such research covers dispersion (for instance, demographic, personality or cognitive diversity) and average team member trait levels (for instance, average team skill, know-how, or personality) combined; however, a majority of authors have dealt with only one of the above (KEARNEY, GEBERT & VOELPEL, 2009). Through impacting the variety of task related resources on hand and how effectively team members interact and collaborate with each other, team composition, apparently, strongly influences team performance.

Management diversity is also vital to firms, from an internal as well as external standpoint. From the latter standpoint, executive diversity represents a valuable tool at companies\' disposal, which brings about growth and innovation, and increases HR and overall company productivity (Jaworska, 2016). A few results and advancements linked to successful management diversity that have been thoroughly studied are as follows: increased team creativity; improved corporate commitment levels; reduced costs as a result of the attraction, recruitment and retention of the most capable candidates in the job market; reduction in number of discrimination lawsuits; reduced turnover rates; and increased HR productivity with regard to employee satisfaction, turnover intention, job involvement, and corporate citizenship behavior. From the aforementioned outcomes, it clearly follows that HR productivity will improve. Thus, company executives and supervisors should prove particularly efficient in integrating diverse age groups, cultures and genders, and strive to the best of their ability to organize multiplicity and diversity.

For ensuring an edge over rivals in the current globalized world, multinationals should be cognizant of the significance of a culturally- diverse, -sensitive, and -- competent staff, and apply strategies which make the most of associated benefits. Diversity is most apparent and crucial in multinationals. Nowadays, both markets and consumers are diverse in nature, thereby necessitating a diverse workforce. Cultural competency denotes an individual\'s or company\'s knowledge, skills and understanding which aids them in embracing diversity and collaborating effectively with individuals hailing from different backgrounds (whether cultural, linguistic, religious or economic) (O\'Neill, 2016). Cultural competency indicates non-tolerance of discrimination as well as acceptance of, and respect to, all owing to their differences. Nobody is viewed as superior or inferior. It indicates an all-encompassing, dynamic company culture.

The aforementioned introductory section, and consequently, the paper, is largely derived from Rice\'s 2010 work. The author has put forward a balanced, holistic summary of procedures and policies to achieve public organizational ethnic/racial diversity, focusing strongly on improving public sector diversity management. The book revolves around the subject of diversity, how to manage diversity, multiculturalism in public administration, role of diversity in public productivity, delivery of public services within a diverse society, and evolving demographics as well as public policy. The paper is further developed through the aid of additional literature relevant to this topic.

2. Diversity is a tool for productivity and competitive advantage

By means of individuals\' collective and concentrated endeavors, material and financial resources are utilized to accomplish corporate objectives. However, there is a need to hone such efforts, capabilities and attitudes every now and again so as to optimize HR efficacy and help them tackle bigger challenges. No company can progress an inch without a workforce. Hence, HR management, which deals with handling companies\' human component such that corporate aims and targets are attained and, simultaneously, personnel grow personally and intellectually and are satisfied with the company, constitutes a key organizational issue (Jaworska, 2016). Firms which employ HR hailing from diverse age groups, genders, religions, races, nationalities, and regions, and holding diverse beliefs and standpoints find it rather hard to manage such a workforce. The workforce also encounters difficulties in adapting to such a diverse atmosphere. Management of a diverse workforce constitutes a major organizational challenge.

Improving personnel productivity remains a key managerial and overall corporate challenge. As individual corporations possess their own distinctive aims and corporate structures, multiple approaches may be employed for achieving increased productivity. One such approach entails the successful espousal and management of organizational diversity. When managers sincerely work towards personnel welfare by providing them adequate compensation, healthcare amenities and an objective appraisal, employees develop a feeling of belongingness to the organization regardless of their different background. Thus, they stay loyal and work hard, thereby enhancing organizational efficiency and returns (O\'Neill, 2016).

Of late, enterprises and institutions are supporting collaboration more than ever as a way to ensure improved job task outcomes and improved product/service delivery. One person carrying out several tasks will take longer to accomplish them all as compared to a team. Furthermore, individual team members have several individual ideas to offer and provide their own unique standpoints when seeking solutions to problems, facilitating effective achievement of the ideal solution in as short a period as possible.

A workforce hailing from different backgrounds will bring with it unique experiences and views which aid team-based tasks. Combining culturally diverse workers\' different abilities, know-how, and understanding may greatly benefit the firm by bolstering team output and alertness when it comes to adjusting to evolving environments (Norman-Major & Gooden, 2012). All cultures possess their own unique fortes and failings, and hence, besides his/her individuality, each individual worker will possess unique culturally derived weaknesses and strengths. When individual staff members\' distinctive characteristics are adequately and successfully managed, the company can harness their strengths and improve on their weaknesses; this will greatly impact personnel.

Corporate competitiveness and success rely on its capacity of accepting and supporting diversity and recognizing its advantages. Active company assessment of workplace diversity management and development and implementation of diversity strategies gleans several benefits: diversity fuels efficiency and innovation, developing a world class corporate culture capable of outperforming rivals. Multicultural companies are better able to serve diverse customers within the progressively more globalized market. These companies better realize the political, legal, social, cultural and economic requirements of other countries (Kellough and Naff, 2004). Within advanced technological and research oriented sectors, the huge pool of abilities acquired by ethnic- and gender- diverse firms becomes an invaluable advantage. After all, inventiveness flourishes with diversity in the environment (Virtue, 2010; Soni, 2002). Hence, multicultural firms are typically better problem solvers, are better able to derive broadened meanings, and will more likely exhibit various different views and interpretations when it comes to tackling complex problems. Companies that employ individuals from varied backgrounds are able to generate a larger range of resolutions to issues pertaining to resource allotment, service, and sourcing. Such personnel bring with them unique experiences and abilities, and may put forward ideas which prove flexible in adjusting to shifting consumer and market demands. Their assorted set of experiences and skills (like cultural understanding or sensitivity and languages) helps firms cater to clients across the globe. Diverse workforces comfortable with expressing their different perspectives will offer a bigger pool of experiences and ideas.

2.1. Diversity and cultural competence

Assuming a proactive strategy when it comes to cultural competence and diversity has a broad array of benefits to enterprises operating on the international business scene. Of these, some benefits include:

Improved client focus and satisfaction: Companies whose employees are just as varied as their clients will probably better understand and effectively cater to client needs. For instance, if a company hires personnel who speak different tongues and can effectively interpret for their customers, understanding and communication is improved. An employee who knows and speaks the language spoken by a customer group can ascertain precisely what those customers are seeking and what they\'re attempting to convey. Moreover, they will likely possess a profounder understanding of client needs and of \"where they hail from\" within a wider cultural context (O\'Neill, 2016; Norman-Major & Gooden, 2012). Buyers who come into a retail store and perceive proof of cultural competence and diversity will understand the corporate values reflected -- seeing a diverse staff consisting of disabled individuals, individuals of diverse ethnicities, males and females, old and young, in addition to merchandise from across the nation or the globe will create an impression of a company that is sincere when it comes to its social roles.

A broader talent pool to capitalize on: Covert or overt discrimination actually reduces the labor market talent pool for an organization. But if a company is welcoming to every candidate, the talent pool from which they can draw becomes broader, opening a realm of avenues (Gore & National Partnership for Reinventing Government (U.S.), 2000). Companies may achieve this through the implementation of appropriate HR policies of acquisition, maintenance and development, which actively imbed cultural competence and support diversity.

Skill base expansion: By recruiting candidates out of a bigger talent pool, an organization can effectively obtain a staff hailing from a varied range of settings. Such a candidate base will offer the company access to a bigger skill base, using which it can recruit individuals bringing with them a broader array of problem solving strategies, abilities, competences, and experiences.

Increased creativity: The presence of a culturally competent and diverse staff inspires individuals to think outside of their respective cultural mindsets and traditions (Rice, 2010). When individuals hailing from diverse cultural backgrounds work together, they will be able to exchange ideas, learn from one another, discuss matters productively, and unearth unique problem solving or work-based strategies. Thus, personnel who work in teams can adopt diverse approaches to ventures or issues, share their personal experiences and ideas, and come up with superior solutions, thereby giving rise to a kind of unique synergy which accords competitive advantage to the company.

Better marketplace understanding: A workforce comprising of a diverse collection of individuals implies the organization can better grasp how the rest of the world, and the international marketplace, functions. For instance, they will realize that individuals from different nations, cultures or subcultures do the same thing differently. Additionally, comprehending precisely how different nations perform and think differently will help a firm better respond to client needs and associated challenges (O\'Neill, 2016).

Greater productivity: Clearly, organizations that continually hire identical kinds of individuals, who look, speak and behave the same, fail at making the most of the array of prospects, abilities and ideas at their disposal, provided by the enormous array of \'different\' individuals (KEARNEY et al., 2009). Greater productivity results from the many benefits of developing a diverse employee base, and implies that employees are producing more or offering services of superior quality.

2.2. Linking Diversity to Strategic Plans

Diversity related strategic planning concentrates on coming up with quantifiable means by which diversity may support organizational strategic direction, aims and missions. Strategic diversity related long-term planning is a newer development. Earlier, diversity wasn\'t considered central to strategic planning and programs in this regard were generally poorly designed, weren\'t specific and weren\'t connected to strategic corporate policies (Soni, 2002). Present-day leaders acknowledge that for a successful organization, efficient diversity planning ought to be made in line with, and offer support to, strategic functional decisions and corporate aims.

Hence, the basis of the theory of productive diversity is that conventional work and organizational techniques will likely prove inefficient and counterproductive to long-term corporate sustainability and success. Essentially, the present and emergent environment poses various issues to be resolved and averted, in addition to opportunities that are to be taken advantage of (Mor Barak, 2014). A benefits and costs related reasoning may be applied to support this theory. Effective diversity management is linked directly to cost reduction owing to decreased personnel turnover rates, decreased absenteeism, decreased group productivity losses from inter-group and cross-cultural disagreements, and lower risks of litigation on account of discriminatory actions.

Whether a company truly executes relevant strategies or not is perceived to be the most salient marker of implementation of organizational diversity management. Five key strategies are considered universal and applicable to all organizations, including managing diversity via induction initiatives, training, \'confronting\' the issue of discrimination, integrating diversity management into wider strategic planning and measuring managerial performance with regard to performance markers of diversity management (Kellough and Naff, 2004). The above strategies are considered relevant and capable of being adopted in all companies.

Theoretically, diversity management implementers would put numerous organization-specific activities into practice, unique to the given firm. A collection of these kinds of strategies was compiled depending on latest research-identified methods, study reference group remarks, and approaches identified using the pilot procedure which put the interview program to test (Jaworska, 2016). The approaches were classified into two groups based on whether they attempted to understand personnel diversity or market diversity. The approaches ascertained and covered by the interview agenda are listed below:

2.2.1. Marketing Strategies

Niche marketing targeted at specific ethnic, cultural (multicultural marketing), gender and age groups may be adopted; for instance, marketing specifically to females or a particular age group (say, teenagers), implementing programs with Natives, providing multiple-language services to clients, employing translators or interpreters for communicating internally and externally; and translating major documents in English to other languages for employee or client convenience (Jaworska, 2016; O\'Neill, 2016).

2.2.2. Employee Strategies

These strategies include actively hiring people belonging to different backgrounds and age groups; organizing cross-cultural work-related training for personnel and executives; recognizing foreign qualifications and work experience; overtly challenging and combating discrimination in numerous areas (discrimination against workers from a particular religion or race, gender discrimination, etc.); devising mentoring initiatives for facilitating particular groups\' career development (e.g., Non-English Speaking Background employees); organizing staff cultural events; gauging executive performance against conditions of productive diversity; including diversity in strategic planning; and internal environmental survey which covers questions on the subject of organizational diversity (Virtue, 2010; Mor Barak, 2014).

3. Diversity is part of CSR (corporate social responsibility)

CSR has surfaced as an important global business issue. While it is a fairly new domain for researchers, current concerns voiced on this subject in practical and theoretical discussions suggests that CSR related know-how represents a swiftly growing developmental phase. Experts in the fields of management and economics stress the need for and advent of extensive CSR. The present stream has given rise to several connected researches that focus on corporate environment, governance and civil society. With the growing acknowledgement of the necessity of addressing a broader stakeholder base\'s concerns, authors assert that CSR has increasing significance for competitive success; consequently, it ought to be deemed as strategic investment, in a way (Ardakani et al., 2016; Rice, 2010). Since personnel are counted among the key organizational stakeholders, authors maintain that CSR and HR management are closely linked. The mode of cultivation, and strength, of stakeholder relationships (particularly the organization-workforce relationship) will probably be gleaned from values entrenched in corporate culture. After identifying and prioritizing corporate stakeholders, CSR programs should be aligned with stakeholder preferences.

Diversity management constitutes one among the key components of CSR. CSR\'s direct impact occurs via enhanced reputation or image. An organization well-known for sound cultural competency and diversity policies will be able to develop a good CSR founded reputation, which will prove beneficial to the company in many ways. Improved reputation will draw clients who look to purchase a socially and ethically responsible company\'s goods and services. Similarly, it will be able to attract potential shareholders, since more individuals desire to purchase the shares of a company which is cultivating a competitive advantage within the global market (O\'Neill, 2016). Moreover, companies reputed for possessing and fostering a diverse, dynamic corporate atmosphere will likely draw in the cream of the labor market. This will lead to a growth in production, productivity, profitability, sales and share value, which will facilitate the attainment of corporate social and financial objectives.

Diversity enhances company attractiveness, which may be described as how far a candidate personally wishes for employment in a firm and how enthusiastically and often he/she would advise others to seek employment with the company (Ardakani et al., 2016). The basic premise of signaling theory is: people or companies endeavor to communicate information to other people with an aim to obtain some form of investment. Researchers suggest that portrayals of corporate diversity management initiatives send hints which might either deter or attract candidates. The theory of organizational attractiveness claims that, candidates lacking comprehensive facts regarding a firm have to depend on signals for decreasing uncertainties linked to unfamiliar company characteristics. A workforce depicting diversity indicates the firm complies with societal ethics, norms, rules and conventions. Owing to the portrayal of such indications by the company, candidates from diverse backgrounds assess the company better with regard to its attractiveness. Some researchers have, in their works, corroborated that diversity management and policies are influential factors affecting organizational attractiveness.

Thus, properly executed diversity management plans improve perceptions of company attractiveness; this perception on personnel\'s part influences individual as well as overall company outcomes (organizational citizenship behavior, job involvement and satisfaction, intention to jump ship, etc.) and enhances HR productivity. Therefore, workforce opinion of company attractiveness mediates diversity management\'s impact on HR productivity (Mor Barak, 2014).

Further, since man is a social being and typically socializes with other people within social environments, he will attempt to relate to others and his surrounding environment. Within social organizational atmospheres, personnel who feel they share something with the company will typically share mutual aims and interests. Drawing on the theory of identification (Ardakani et al., 2016), three kinds of commonality identifications exist, namely: formal (layout, type or management of an activity both entities take part in), material (things and possessions), and idealistic (derived from shared concepts, beliefs, ideals, and views (e.g., political or religious associations). Applying diversity management strategies which result in respect for every individual\'s ideals and principles, irrespective of whether they belong to a majority or minority group, increases personnel identification with the company. Company identification represents a particular social identification form. The theory of social identity promotes the notion that: attitudes to diversity influence employee identity. It provides companies with a blank page that they can fill using information on individuals\' perceptions of self and identification with fellow human beings. If diverse employees are effectively managed, diversity management will be able to generate employee social and corporate identity. Hence, social or organizational identity\'s consequence is that: individuals (particularly those whose characteristics differ from the majority) will very likely feel more strongly when it comes to their company and such loyalty will bring about increased organizational citizenship behavior, job involvement and satisfaction, and decrease rates of personnel intentions to jump ship (Kellough and Naff, 2004). Such impacts increase corporate HR productivity. Therefore, a workforce\'s social identity views mediate diversity management\'s impact on HR productivity.

As the objective of diversity management is social justice, equity theory is another theory taken up for discussion by diversity management researchers who address the association of diversity with its consequences. Companies that adopt diversity management make people feel they are implementing systems for fair personnel appraisal, promotion, and reward, depending on their competence and performance, and not irrelevant criteria like age, sex or ethnicity. Thus, when a firm successfully applies diversity management plans and procedures, personnel believe decisions are made objectively; this will enhance the feeling that the organization is playing fair (Virtue, 2010). Consequently, this perceived corporate justice will improve overall corporate as well as individual (organizational citizenship behavior, job involvement and satisfaction, intention to jump ship, etc.) outcomes. Researchers have corroborated positive impacts of company equity and fairness on employee commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in a diverse workforce. Hence, sensed corporate justice mediates diversity management\'s impacts on HR productivity.

Organizational diversity can greatly reinforce firms\' relations with particular client groups by increasing communication effectiveness. One key organizational department in which successful communication proves vital is the customer service division. Customer service reps or employees can team up with particular localities\' or geographies\' clients and make them feel comfortable with the rep as well as the organization (Norman-Major & Gooden, 2012). South West U.S.-based organizations, for instance, typically seek bilingual customer service staff that will be able to effectively handle Spanish speaking customers, by communicating with them in Spanish.

3.1. Aids to avert Unconscious bias

Unintentional bias results when individuals possess prejudices they do not know they hold. All individuals exhibit some measure of unintentional bias, coming from how they view the world, and shaped by various factors such as one\'s familial background, community, culture, and life experiences. Within an organizational setting, it can impact the entire human resources process, right from job ad designing, to interview administration and applicant selection during recruitment/selection processes and personnel retention rates; in short, unintentional bias impacts the overall corporate culture. It may occur with regard to a broad variety of personal factors, such as ethnicity, sex, disability, personality, age, height, hair color, etc., and may generate unintentional discrimination, developing a personnel base which isn\'t sufficiently diverse (Gore & National Partnership for Reinventing Government (U.S.), 2000). Corporations must take care to identify and correct unintentional bias, and enforce strategies for decreasing resultant adverse effects on corporate culture and employment practices. Opportunity costs linked to only recruiting individuals belonging to a specific background (whether cultural, gender-based, or socioeconomic) are: loss of possible ideas, creativity, abilities and results which could ensure from the employment of individuals from different backgrounds, whose collaboration would have generated improved productivity, creativity, and returns.

Evolving social roles worldwide, especially in case of females, in addition to global human rights advocacy, also question and counter traditional discriminatory practices on grounds of socioeconomic standing, religion, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation and disability. Greater female incorporation into the workforce is one among the key organizational diversity -- related components in the North American continent. Female involvement in paid jobs has grown, owing to social and economic transformation (Jaworska, 2016). Birth control, for instance, has enabled females to control their lives better, and unlocked educational and employment opportunities.

Besides birth control, females can now access a wider array of jobs owing to workplace evolutions. Technological advancements and automation allow females to now carry out a number of jobs which were earlier considered too dangerous or physically taxing to them, or necessitated their exposure to hostile settings. Organizations of the twentieth century were totally male dominated and largely dealt in manufactured and agricultural produce. All through the century, however, and especially during its latter half, the North American economy progressively moved from product-based to service-based organizations. Further, automation in the industrial and farming sectors eliminated manual labor, decreasing emphasis on stamina and physical power, thus opening up these sectors to females (Soni, 2002).

In the Second World War era, when males were all deployed to Europe to join the war effort, females, supported by the nation\'s defense sector, took over the industries. They were determined and skillful enough to take part as equals to males and destabilized the extant gender barriers. The year 1997 saw sixty percent of females in the U.S. employed in the workforce (the 1950 figure was 33%) whereas male participation in the workforce, during the same interval of time, declined from 88 to 75%. With the continued expansion of the nation\'s service economy, more and better prepared females will be employed in service organizations\' professional positions in the days to come. Fifty- five percent of the nation\'s bachelor\'s degree holders, 53% of master\'s degrees holders and almost 40% of doctoral degree holders are females (Soni, 2002; Ardakani et al., 2016).

4. Diversity is a key to innovation and growth

According to Lambert (2016), companies apply one among the following three approaches in corporate diversity management: learning and integration; discrimination and justice; and legitimacy and access. Diversity approaches may be overt (e.g., implementation of official rules and policies) or implied (e.g., via managerial behaviors). The author\'s qualitative research determined these 3 approaches in 3 professional service organizations, and related them to their impact on team operations and results. The foremost approach (learning and integration) most positively impacted work outcomes. Companies with this view integrated procedures and rules directly associating cultural diversity and work procedures, thus creating superior value for the instructional resource of cultural identity. Consequently, more minority personnel and females could begin influencing organizational outcomes. A chief indicator for corporate progress in this regard was: more minority group individuals in managerial posts and the outcome of product as well as process innovation.

In studying diversity\'s value pertaining to innovation, moving beyond its strictly demographic definition, going into the depths of the strand specific strategy and considering learned components of difference is crucial. Individual and community characteristics and learning approaches encompass diverse knowledge procurement, communication methods, educational attainment, professional and personal capabilities and talents, and operational know-how (KEARNEY et al., 2009). Corporations also acknowledge this diversity aspect, especially with regard to innovation; for instance, some attempt at organizing \"cross-functional\" groups for fostering novel idea generation.

The legitimacy and access approach increased the numbers of minority workers as well. But policies weren\'t supported for ensuring efficacy when it comes to empowering minority personnel or backing their climb towards key leadership positions. Such an atmosphere incorporated minority personnel\'s views and ideas, but this was done only for expanding organizational market share in earlier untargeted ethnic and racial markets (Lambert, 2016). That is, limited minority personnel contributions were witnessed, and they had no access to viable managerial opportunities besides those that helped the organization directly profit from minority customer accessibility.

The discrimination and justice approach is marked by less importance to cultural identity; the justification for diversification was adherence to law and reduced liability against personnel discrimination. The approach deems the dominant culture to be superior and sound and expects every staff member to adapt him/herself to that culture (Mor Barak, 2014). Individual approaches originate from how far practices or policies are applied in recognizing and supporting personnel diversity.

Workplace diversity generates chances for individual growth of workers. Exposure of individuals to novel ideas, standpoints and cultures aids them in intellectually reaching out and better understanding their standing within their immediate, and the external global, context. Spending more time with colleagues from different cultures will gradually knock down subconscious obstacles of ethnocentrism and xenophobia, thus making employees more experienced societal entities (Virtue, 2010).

With regard to diversity, biased innovation may be believed to originate from cognitive diversity implied by diversity\'s observable and concealed forms. But diverse persons\' capacity of communicating their innovative and unique thoughts to other people and the latter\'s readiness to lend an ear and effectively react to these thoughts may be hampered by non- institutional and institutional discrimination, which includes how far the firm\'s culture incorporates \"inclusion\" as well as the objective corporate structures wherein inventive and original thinking occurs (O\'Neill, 2016). All efforts to encourage \"latent\" inventiveness and originality among and via diverse personnel should be related to broader management practices and procedures in companies.