Technique and Style of Baroque Artists

Baroque Painters

The Techniques of Five Baroque Painters

The Baroque era painters, different as they were in terms of personal style, approach, and technique, had in common the ability to imbue their works with a certain dramatic quality much in demand in the era. The Baroque had followed on the heels of the High Renaissance with its humanism and emerging scientifically revolutionary theses. The Protestant Reformation had begun and religious and political wars were raging through Europe. The Baroque style of painting has been linked with the Church's Counter-Reformation, an artistic expression of those mysteries taught by the Church regarding fallen human nature. The word "baroque" means "imperfect pearl" and was applied by later critics, who sought to criticize the artistic works of the period for their elaborate, or excessively detailed, or highly dramatic compositions. It was precisely for these reasons that the Church supported the Baroque painters -- they contrasted with the "rationalism" and "idealism" of the Renaissance that had contributed to the undermining of the Catholic culture that had dominated Europe for hundreds of years. This paper will discuss the works of five Baroque painters -- Rembrandt van Rijn, Diego Velazquez, Peter Paul Rubens, Caravaggio, and Gerrit van Honthorst -- and show how their specific techniques firmly embedded them in the Baroque era.

Rembrandt

Herman Bauer notes that Rembrandt "has an illusionistic effect" as though the viewer were present within the scene that Rembrandt paints (29). This effect is particularly sensed in Rembrandt's Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (1662), a collective portrait of the Guild, which commissioned it. The work catches the inspectors in the middle of their task, each of them suddenly looking up at someone or something just past the viewer, almost causing the viewer to want to look over his shoulder to see what it is the inspectors are looking at. It is an example of the Rembrandt style in which the characters in the work become the audience and the audience becomes the subject of the characters' interest. Rembrandt puts the viewer at the center of the work by turning the eyes of the officials on him, thus eliminating the barrier between "real space" and "pictorial space" (Bauer 29).

It is evident in Rembrandt's works that he "received," as Seymour Slive states, "decisive impulses from the Caravaggesque style" (18). Caravaggio, who will be discussed next, was the Italian painter who emphasized the subject of his paintings by casting them in light and surrounding them in darkness. It was a dramatic effect of chiaroscuro at which Caravaggio excelled. Rembrandt's technique does not rely as heavily upon sharp contrasts of light and darkness, but the chiaroscuro effect is certainly discernible in many of Rembrandt's paintings. As Dutch art was influenced by the Italian masters, this is no surprise. However, the fact that the Dutch audience during the Golden Age was of a different temper than the Italian audiences, "necessitated alternative" styles, which might appeal to the new Dutch middle class (Zuffi 14). In Italy, on the other hand, patrons were typically Churchmen or members of the aristocracy -- their tastes much more inclined to embellishment. The Dutch style was characterized by a much more objective quality, which has been called realism, though earlier painters such as Bosch had certainly depicted religious narratives using fantastic imagery. But even his works contain a Dutch quality that is unmistakable.

Rembrandt's themes were diverse, though he has been characterized as a history painter (Johnson 372). He examined Jewish, Christian, and Dutch lives and stories, focusing on real people rather than idealistic beauty (Fuchs 136) as was common in the earlier Renaissance era. His subjects ranged from himself, whom he painted more frequently than any other artist, to locals, to historical persons, to landscapes, collectives, and more. He used the impasto technique with brilliant effect, as though he were sculpting with paint. By layering thick oil paint, which has weighty viscosity and takes longer to dry than acrylic or watercolor paints, on his canvas, Rembrandt could "etch" into the deposit of paint and mold and shape it to convey wrinkles of skin or fabrics or shadows. His impasto method gave body to his works, which allowed them to be more expressive in parts that the painter wanted emphasized. For example, in his Self-Portrait (1659), the artist's face is illuminated in an otherwise muted backdrop. It is as if he is using the relief technique of sculptors to make the face "pop" and stand out more effectively. The face is certainly what captivated Rembrandt most and it is there that he excelled -- depicting with impasto and chiaroscuro qualities of flesh and fabric that would otherwise be difficult to depict so realistically.

In The Jewish Bride (1667), for instance, Rembrandt couples thick impasto with thin glazes, which make the sleeve of the male in the picture stand out with a particularly 3-D effect. The couple in the painting is brought forward from the backdrop which is again muted with its dark, earthy tones, to allow the contrast of the golden colors of the male and female clothing to appear richer and more vibrant. The action of the painting is localized in the placement of the hands of the couple and expressions of their faces -- a total attitude which is tender, affectionate, loving, and still. Much of this is accomplished with the impasto and glaze technique, while the flat background is only altered by the impasto technique used to create the illusion of depth in the dark green foliage of the houseplant which sits behind the couple.

Rembrandt also used chalk in his impastos to give them more body and to add to the translucency of the glazes. As David Bomford notes, Rembrandt's impastos were crafted out of particular materials which allowed for the heavy passages that he utilized in his paintings. For example, Rembrandt often used lead white or lead-tin yellow. Lead white was particularly useful for Rembrandt's purposes because as it dries, it does not lead to cracking with age, but rather keeps the paint firm but yielding (Bomford 36). This texture of and care for the paint that he used was essentially in the development of his method. Just as a sculptor works with clay and molds his subject from a base, so too did Rembrandt seemingly mold his subject by using denser materials and glazes to give body, volume, flexibility, and a glowing resiliency -- all for an illusory effect, which was like grabbing the audience and pulling them into the framework. The paint literally reaches out from the canvas, and the eyes of the lifelike faces look at the viewer or just past him with an inviting or inquisitive stare.

Rembrandt's technique commands the attention of the viewer because it creates a third-dimensional effect with a two-dimensional medium. Rembrandt borrows from the chiaroscuro method of the Italians but builds upon (quite literally) the way an architect builds upon a foundation. The play of shadow and light is there in a Rembrandt work but the usage of impasto adds a further dimension of reality to the painting by allowing the work to reach out to the audience as well as the artist to etch into the paint, to scratch, lift, sculpt and otherwise manage the oil pigments. The point of this technique is ultimately to catch some spirit in the human actions which he conveys, some aspect of humanity or of the age, the time and place, that speaks to the human soul. This is notable in the illuminated faces, features, dress and settings of Rembrandt's paintings, which illustrate sadness, awe, joy, melancholy and much more.

Caravaggio

Caravaggio's technique of tenebrism, which is to seemingly throw a spot of light onto the area of the painting that the artist wants the viewer's eyes to especially notice, is used to great effect in his works. The naturalistic method of this style spread throughout all Europe as it exemplified the method of artwork that the Counter-Reformation supported during the Baroque era. Caravaggio's technique was exceptionally naturalistic -- but also dynamic and dramatic thanks to the chiaroscuro and tenebrism techniques that he adopted so well.

The style of Caravaggio was based partly on his ability to paint quickly using real life models which he recruited from the local streets. Rather than painting in an idealized manner, as other artists do, in order to create an effect of beauty and harmony, Caravaggio effected the Baroque manner by treating of his subjects with a realistic eye for detail. Caravaggio's "vigorous" method of painting in a realistic way, albeit with an eye for the dramatic effect, is what helped make the Baroque era so lifelike and animated (Slive 7). The emphasis was not so much on perfection of form but rather on the accurate representation of mood, of subject, of theme, of reality. The deep and penetrating questions of the time, whether religious, political, or social, were felt in the Baroque style and Caravaggio's technique is what helped lay the foundation for the Baroque artists. His technique was spontaneous yet thoughtful and like Rembrandt and Velazquez, who were influenced by him, it served a greater thematic purpose, which was to draw attention to a particular feature or action within the painting, by using the play of light and shadow and the forces of contrast (which carry a significant spiritual significance, especially considering the time and place in which this technique was executed).

Caravaggio's naturalist aim was a departure from the popular mannerist method of the High Renaissance that preceded it. For example, The Musicians (1595) is of particular noteworthiness for the subject it represents, which is the practice of music by Italian youths. As part of the Counter-Reformation, the Church was advocating a musical rebirth, and this scene depicts a common or traditional sight: youths practicing the lute. However, the expressions of the youths faces reflect a simple, natural demeanor.

His Basket of Fruit (1595) of the same year reflects the tendency towards naturalism. Its fruit is not in any pristine condition whatsoever: the apple has worm holes in it, the leaves are dried and wilted, and the figs are splitting. What is the meaning of painting the fruit in this way? It has possibly a loaded meaning: it signifies the natural end of all things, which is death and decay. It also represents the technique of Caravaggio which was to act as recorder of life, a documenter so to speak. Most importantly, the subject is not glorified or idealized but rather in the midst of action (for still life, the action is all too apparent -- the fruit is beginning to rot).

Caravaggio's Judith Beheading Holofernes (1598) is a much more dramatic example of his technique, which couples naturalism with religious narrative, and uses tenebrism and chiaroscuro to draw the viewers eyes to particular details in the painting. For example, Judith is illuminated as the heroine of the history, but her servant beside her is partly cast in shadow and is particularly aged (whereas Judith is young and beautiful, though making an expression that is certainly concentrated and determined). Holofernes is also cast partly in shadow as he is being decapitated. The scene depicted captures Judith midway through the act of sawing off Holofernes's head. His eyes roll back and his mouth gapes open in surprise as his left arm attempts to support his frame. Blood spurts out downward and to the left as the servant readies the sack to capture the severed head. The manner of Judith is also noteworthy, for she seems to pull back from the violence as though she finds it detestable even if it is necessary for the goal that she has in mind. She suggests a woman of gentleness at the same time she is committing a gruesomely bloody act. The grim and ancient face of her servant, on the other hand, reflects a worldly wisdom and approval as well as a fascination for the horror at hand, as the eyes of the servant are focused on the face of the enemy. The face of the servant suggests grim conviction whereas Judith's suggests reluctant determination (if such incongruous feelings can be coupled). The background is cloaked in darkness, giving the scene of violence a stark and brilliantly illuminative effect. The action stands out for the contrast of Judith's white blouse and creamy features with the shadowy backdrop.

The sheen with which Caravaggio produces his picture is said to have been made by the application of "a thin layer of tempera" over the oil, giving it a subtle gloss in order to help capture and retain light (Gash 104). However, because of Caravaggio's quickness and spontaneous way of producing his naturalistic works, he often used a "scoring" method of preparation, which was to scratch out the details of the painting directly into the primary coating, rather than draw or sketch them onto the canvas. These lines are still visible in some of his paintings, such as The Flagellation of Christ (1606), which is characteristically shrouded in shadow, with Christ illuminated from the front, and His attackers reaching out of the shadows behind Him.

Caravaggio also employed a "sprezzato" technique, exemplified by "rapid, cursory" strokes which would later be utilized by the Impressionist painters centuries later. This technique allowed Caravaggio to cultivate a simpler form of expression that still remained true to the naturalistic aim of the artist (Gregori 310). Rapid scoring with the blunt end of his brush sufficed to give him the rough outline he needed to fill in the paint. This technique was criticized for being flawed and unsophisticated but it served his purpose which was to bring something fresh, something spur-of-the-moment, something intimate and dramatic, as though the action were happening as it was being depicted before the viewer's eyes. His Supper at Emmaus (1601) depicts a Christ whose face is full and whose body casts a dark shadow across the wall behind him. Shadows hang over the dinner table as the host and guests marvel at Christ's words, one about to jump out of his seat. The painting does not in any way appear hurried but its sense of urgency is felt everywhere one looks.

Conveying this sense of urgency is part of what makes Caravaggio unique among Baroque painters. His paintings are typically characterized by the sharp contrast of dark backdrops and illuminated characters, so that sometimes half of what is painted is shrouded in mystery and the other half is brilliantly illuminated as though a spotlight were shining on that spot and on that spot only. This is the case in St. Jerome (1605), where the aged Jerome sits bald-headed, long-bearded, and stooped over his bible as he translates it into the Vulgate. The halo floats over his head and contrasts sharply with the black backdrop which half swallows it. It is a painting in which the viewer is invited to sympathize with the heavy task of Jerome and to feel the weight of holiness represented by that halo. It is a stylistic technique of Caravaggio that makes his paintings easily identifiable, as no other painter used the chiaroscuro method so starkly as he did, yet applied such smooth, seamless transitions in action between characters and space. If Rembrandt built up his canvas with impasto acting like relief in a sculpture, Caravaggio's canvases are flat in comparison, yet deep and full of life, light and shadow. Colors, shapes, and scenes are bursting in every frame, drawing the eye to the great mystery at the heart of human nature and its dramatic, life altering significance when framed according to the doctrines of the Church which supported the Baroque artists like Caravaggio.

Velazquez

Diego Velazquez was born at around the same time that Caravaggio was painting his masterpieces. He was a Spaniard, who painted for King Philip IV and represented the Golden Age of art in Spain. Realistic as well as impressionistic, the technique of Velazquez would lay the foundation for future Impressionists. By embracing the naturalistic aims of the Baroque era and depicting life as it was, as it appeared to him, without the fineries of the Mannerist method of art, Velazquez became a chronicler of the present as well as a depicter of the past.

Velazquez did this by developing a technique that was "fluid" and broke with conventional methods of painting (Brown 18). He used pigments specifically, sometimes using only five, in order to express startling tonality. Casting each painting in a specific tone enabled him to give expression to a sense of wholeness, of complete uniformity, as though all of life were mysteriously and artistically guided by a sense of unity and purpose. This tonality is seen in such works as the Portrait of Pope Innocent X (1650) in which the pontiff's red shroud is reflected in the velvet cushion of his gold throne and in the velvety backdrop as well as in his hat, face and rings. This red tone is offset by the white dress underneath and the white encyclical in his hand, as well as in the white collar and even the whites of the Pope's eyes. The technique is one of balance but also one of simplified accord.

The portrait of the Infanta Margarita Teresa in a Blue Dress (1659) displays a similar virtuoso technique for uniting the composition in a tonal scheme of blue and gold, employing as well the chiaroscuro technique of Caravaggio by drenching the backdrop in shadow to heighten the color of the dress of the child and the golden locks that are her hair.

To establish such pictorial effect, Velazquez combined layer upon layer of translucence with swift, confident mixtures of strokes, whether long or short. His palate was simple but absolutely all he needed to arrange the composition in a satisfactory form that would draw out from the subject the inner essence. He strived to create an effect of color harmonies in his works and to create the impression of refracted light, as is seen in a mirror. His ability to depict reflections stemmed from his nuance of accent, using a "silvery transparency" to "heighten the mirrored reflections" of objects within the paintings (Serullaz 21).

This ability to attain a gloss that carried with it real depth of space would rival that of the Dutch painter Vermeer, who also depicted realistic scenes by applying layer after layer of translucent paint until the characters and their settings leapt from the canvas like a hologram (Gudiol 87).

The application of pigment to canvas in order to cover the entire space was not important to Velazquez after a certain point. What mattered was the effect of the painting, the impressions which it produced for the viewer. If it leapt from the canvas with life and realism, this was what was essential. In his mature works, Velazquez uses layers to "soak in light" and then reflect it back onto the viewer (Sanchez 38). As in true life, actual outlines are indiscernible. Forms exist independently of foundation, primer, sketching. They appear to have been magically superimposed on the canvas without any intervention of the artist or a third party application. And yet, this technique of Velazquez, which Sanchez calls "fluid in the extreme," is only possible because of the nearly watercolor like way in which he paints his pictures: "areas of primer are visible," indicating that the artist will use what is already there if it works for the thematic wholeness and structure of the piece (Sanchez 38).

The Surrender of Breda (1634) illustrates this technique particularly well as it shows the Spanish General Spinola accepting the keys of the Netherlands from Justin of Nassau. Gone is the chiaroscuro effect of Caravaggio. In its place is light and space and a full view of the event as it is unfolded with the landscape of the region perfectly discernible in the background. The dramatic nature of the scene is infused with peace and gentility as the loser submits to the winner and the winner graciously accepts the loser's keys, while onlookers look over their shoulders at the viewer, thus acting as characters in a Rembrandt painting might by making the viewer part of the action and in fact of more interest to the characters in the painting than the action of which they are a part. The fluid technique with which Velazquez dispatches the painting allows him to layer his thin layers of paint one atop the other until they build what is necessary for the eye to see: the affect of popping imagery that is realistic and glorious. It captures a spirit of humility with a spirit of grandeur and mixes the horror of war, seen in the backdrop, as wisps of smoke waft into the air from the devastated remnants of the fighting, with the chivalry of soldiers, seen in the foreground, center of the action, as they respect one another with courtesy and friendliness. Velazquez's technique in bringing this portrait of the collective to completion is to apply the effect of translucent glaze where it is needed and leaving those parts which are already satisfactory (such as those parts where the primer is visible) without it.

Thus the technique of Velazquez matured over time, turning away from the dramatic and dark view of the Caravaggio mindset to the more expansive and interested and brilliant mindset of the celebrated Spain. Velazquez used a more dignified approach to painting, one that was less traditional, but more intuitive; one that was less artificial, yet more realistic; one that created impressions without surrendering any sense of realism. Velazquez laid the groundwork for future Spanish artists like Goya, who would look to the painter for guidance in the areas of producing effect by confidently applying the right amount of pigment, with tonal unity in mind, and with saturation also in view (Perez 60).

Anticipating the work of Vermeer, Velazquez accomplished great feats of detail by careful applying light layers of thin paint, blending together the appropriate pigments for a work of consonance. In The Spinners (1657), Velazquez shows an impressive economy of paint in the portrait, showing the simple action of the women at their spinning wheels, as some are saturated with light and others are partially obscured by the shadows of the interior of the room. Yet beyond them is the light of a second room and the tapestry on that room's walls apparent and detailed, to such an extent that the viewer finds himself looking beyond the spinners to attempt to see what is happening in the next room. The effect is so consistent with the way one actually occupies space in real life, attempting to discern both where one is and what is happening in the next room, that the picture appears to be photographic (though not as photographic as a painting by Vermeer, who displays the best mixture of realism and impressionism). Moreover, the tapestry in the background carries with it a thematic symbolism which serves to comment on the simple scene which failed to engage the viewer initially but now returns the viewer to the foreground with more to consider in terms of what is there before his eyes. The scene is not nearly as simple as first imagined but now imbued with the sense of the history of legend and the frailty of human nature.

This is what Velazquez does in his mature works, bringing scenes of great complexity and scale to life, and inviting the viewer to engage with it on a more personal and deeper level, understanding the subtle nuances and complexities that the painting brings together, whether they are contrasting ideas as in The Surrender of Breda, with war and peace situated together in one sweeping scene, or whether they are of domesticity and tragedy, as in The Spinners. Velazquez's technique in this portion of his career is to produce a narrative that is underscored with a certain lesson, a moral, a note of reminder about the conflicting elements in human nature and the need to harness them and keep them under control.

Mastery of the technique of subtle light impressions, shade, and expression of the human soul in the body's pose or in the face's expression, was something Velazquez developed over time. But it was also something especially important to the Dutch painters, for whom the Spanish had a great respect and admiration.

Rubens

Peter Paul Rubens visited the Spanish Court in 1628 and so impressed the King that the Crown sent Velazquez off to better his craft (Brown 117). Rubens was a Flemish painter, whose pagan narratives were collected by the Catholic King, along with other Dutch works. Rubens combined, richness with lush, elegant motifs, ascribing to the Baroque era's demands but also emulating in a way the disposition of the High Renaissance works, but taking them to the next level of artistic accomplishment.

Rubens's technique was one in which the painter used a variety of methods in order to produce a dramatic effect. Rubens in essence combined the techniques of the other Baroque artists: he used translucent layers of imprimatura in order to utilize light to the utmost, but he also used heavy impastos in passages where he did not want light to be reflected through various layers of color. Thus, his canvases offer a stunning variety of form to the viewer, with unexpected moments of brilliance balanced by unexpected moments of complete opacity -- both of which are capable of producing a vivid third dimensional effect in their own ways, one using light and the other using the physical attributes of built-up paint.

Rubens was also a fast painter like Rembrandt and utilized the sprezzato method to complete paintings quickly and with vibrant results (Bruce-Gardiner 580). Part of what enabled Rubens to achieve such rapid success was his employment of underpainting, which technique he used to start his painting, providing a colorful but thinly layered blueprint of what he wanted to do.

By using a simple palette like Velazquez, and placing the pigmented colors onto the canvas, he could allow the colors of his paints to set and take their place on the canvas. His imprimatura was typically earthy but sometimes gray and most often applied with a streaking technique. Overtop the imprimatura went the underpainting, which was typically of darker hues, Siennas or black.

It is doubtful that Rubens would allows his underpainting colors time to actually dry, since he worked so rapidly. The oil grounds he used were probably of significant saturation level qualities, whether chalk or of a half-oil mix. However, they may not have been oil at all. It is possible that Rubens used water-based paints to produce his underpainting colors. Using a distemper to apply the pigment, one could achieve the translucent effect that Rubens produced by streaking the appropriate ochre or earthy colors during the imprimatura stage.

Rubens would proceed with his paintings by making contoured shapes. This technique allowed him to produce a quick outline of the project complete with shadow spots, using Sienna and black once more, which would give the canvas and somewhat haunting color. This provides a layer of texture, which when left exposed plays with the final result of the canvas and the colors used by giving the overall effect an impromptu appeal and eradicating any sense of formalism or mannerism, though the final product would be no less grand or magnificent to behold.

Rubens would also have to employ some time separating the opaque, shadow areas from the reflective, translucent layers. Catching the light of colors used in the canvas would mean using an adjacent color to give the translucent area its glow or allowing the underpainting to visibly show. Jacques Maroger notes that the Rubens medium was effectively ropey for the sake of highlighted areas (132). Getting the paint to be translucent yet thick enough to be binding was part of the mystery of Rubens's technique. Painters can really only guess at the secrets that he employed in producing his final masterpieces, but through exercise and experiment, some informed guesses can be made.

Rubens did not work so quickly that he did not afford himself time to go back to the initial underpainting and add more layers. This is in effect the same as rewriting an essay or editing a book: revision is the art that makes the final product the masterpiece that critics hail it as. By constantly revising and quickly attacking areas of the canvas which are in need of attention, the artist was able to stay as absorbed in the process and the overall vision as the canvas's process of absorption of the oil paint. Artist and medium were one.

In Two Satyrs (1618) for example, Rubens creates a particularly translucent and eye-popping satyr grinning like a devil overtop a second satyr sipping from a dish. The backdrop is dark as in a Caravaggio, but the subjects are not cast in tenebrism so much as brought off the canvas with a glowing effect that is coupled with impasto and glaze. The overall feel of the work is that it was completed in a short time but without haste: its movements and brush strokes do not reflect an obsession with perfected forms or idealized harmonies, as might be observed in Velazquez, but rather with mood and effect, with contrast and with illuminative illusions. The right eye of the foremost satyr stands out for the contrast of white around the dark pupil, and the deep crevice between cheek and grin coupled with the flowingly haphazard strokes of the beard balanced underneath by the flatter and colors of the satyrs flesh produce a fantastic element that brings these mythical creatures to real life. It is the startlingly realistic way in which these satyrs are depicted that makes the work so honest and true: there is a mischievous, malevolent force in this picture, which speaks to the realism that the Baroque era invoked.

The same technique is evident in the Gerbier Family (1629). The underpainting is evident in the areas where shadows and translucent areas meet, allowing the picture to a holographic feel and a hypnotizing appearance (Buck 32). This holographic effect is also evident in Rubens's Samson and Delilah (1609). This work pops with mesmerizing colors, deep blues and brilliant pinks. The body of Samson as he sleeps in the lap of Delilah is literally glowing and lifts off the canvas as its soft, earthy hue contrasts with the ethereal pink of Delilah's robe. One can feel the way that Samson was captivated by Delilah and lulled to sleep by her charms: Rubens lulls the viewer into a kind of hypnotic trance, marveling at what is happening in the picture, with its nearly phosphorescent colors and the blending of so many styles. The backdrop is not as entrenched in shadow as a Caravaggio or as Rubens's Two Satyrs, which mainly focuses on the features of the myth, but rather allows the features of the room and even the soldiers in the hallway outside the room to add to the drama of the scene. One soldier in the far backdrop carries a torch which helps to balance the painting by bringing some illumination to the right side of the panel, reflecting in a way the illumination of the left side's lamp, which highlights the charms of Delilah and the curls of Samson's hair which are being cut off (Plesters 40). The brilliance of the painting may have to do with the technique as applied to painting on a panel rather than on a canvas. The oil on wood medium appears to have allowed the colors to stand out one from another, giving the overall mood of the painting a gauzy, dreamy quality that reflects the thematic nature of the narrative. In this sense, it appears that Rubens's technique is to mirror the story in the application of the paint itself (Saunders 77).

Thus, Rubens effected glowing results that were coupled with dark shadows, mingling the chiaroscuro techniques with the layer techniques that were popular with the Dutch painters. He also used the impasto technique to build up sections of the painting that needed more body and volume to deliver the weighty feel of the scene, just as Rembrandt did with his heavy impasto passages, which physically made the wrinkles of a face an actual reality rather than a mere visual trick. Rubens was more interested in allowing the underpainting to do the work for him rather than attempting to sculpt out the reality that he was striving to reproduce. By letting that which was underneath to be visible in the backdrop for instance or in the shadows, he could dominate the viewer's eyes by relying on the popping effect of the rest of the translucent passages to draw the stare away from the "unfinished" sections of the painting to the marvelously glowing sections, as for instance can be seen in his Samson and Delilah. Here, the incredibly visual Rubens technique is most evident, with the glowing attributes of both central characters, surrounding by the detailed and ornate fixtures of the room as well as the spying attendant and sneaking, lurking soldiers. Rubens's technique sneaks and lurks within the painting, pouncing on the viewer before he is even aware of what is happening; within an instant, the viewer is caught and spell-bound by Rubens's paintbrush, just as Samson is caught and crippled by Delilah and her henchmen.