Training needs analysis practices in Saudi Arabian private firms

¶ … Training Needs Analysis Practices for Managers: A Study of Saudi Arabia Private Firms

Training needs analysis (TNA) is defined by Mabey and Salman (1995:158) as a "process of collecting data which allows an organization to identify and compare its actual level with its desired level of performance." The authors also indicate that this performance could be interpreted as meaning the competencies and attitude necessary for the staff to do the job effectively. Moreover, Armstrong (1996:536) states that "training needs assessment is partly concerned with finding the gap between what is happening and what should happen.. This is what has to be filled by training ." Figure (1.1) depicts this gap.

Figure

The training Gap

WHAT SHOULD BE

TRAINING GAP

WHAT IS

CORPORATE OR FUNCTIONAL ATANDARDS

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL REQUIRED

TARGETS OR STANDARDS OF

PERFORMANCE

CORPORATE FOR FUNCTIONAL RESULTS

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL POSSESSED

ACTUAL PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUALS

Source: Armstrong (1996)

Gibson (1999) asserts that there is a clear need for organizations to carry out a comprehensive training needs analysis before finalizing their training plans; yet despite global concurrence among academicians and HR practitioners, this exercise is not being religiously conducted. The current study intends to carry out a training needs analysis in selected private sector organizations in Saudi Arabia.

Training needs analysis is a crucial facet of the training cycle because it is upon which the effectiveness of all the other phases rest. These phases include training design, deployment, and evaluation. Moreover, it is also difficult to carry out because the parties from whom data are gathered may have varying perspectives on the exercise. There are other circumstances that aggravate the conduct of training needs analysis, such as the situation in which an external consultant merely receives input on the training needs analysis and has not been involved in the process. Moreover, there is some sensitivity involved in training needs analysis. Reid and Barrington (1999) point out that there may be some sensitivity involved in gathering, gauging, and analysing the training needs of an organisation. This is specially true if the process involves determining weak areas that need to be improved. These are but some of the issues that need to be watched out for in the conduct of the training needs analysis in the selected companies.

The conventional models of training needs analysis takes into consideration only the requirements of the job and the extent to which the incumbent meets these requisites. However, it is clear from the view of many HR authors and practitioners that this view is wanting. To be able to make the human resources function truly strategic, there is a need to scan the environment and integrate the strategies of the enterprise into HR strategy. Only in doing so can the HR function truly have value.

The methodology which the current research adopts is based on the theoretical framework of Sleezer (1993), which upholds a holistic approach to training needs analysis. The framework requires analyses at the organisational, task, and person levels.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Currently lack of research and inadequate benchmarks exist for the training needs of companies belonging to the private sector of Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, in the context of Saudi Arabia, there is dearth of literature which focuses on workforce development. The current research aims to provide an adequate analysis of the training needs of companies belonging to the private sector of Saudi Arabia. In providing sound methodology and best practices in undertaking such analysis, the research may serve as a benchmark for similar companies who intend to develop their workforce systematically. Furthermore, in being able to contribute to the development of manpower in the private sector, there will eventually be contribution to the economic sector of Saudi Arabia overall. Moreover, it may also provide a template for systematically assessing the training needs within this industry.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The current research aims to determine how private companies in Saudi Arabia carry out their training needs analysis. This will be done by adopting a case study approach and using a survey, interviews and questionnaire, to collect data. Subsequently, regression and coding techniques will be used as a data analysis tool to infer the results.

1.4 Objectives

In particular, the researcher aims to address the following objectives:

1) To determine the objectives in conducting training needs analysis in Saudi Arabian private sector firms;

2) To ascertain how these firms determine the skills of those in managerial positions match those of job requirements;

3) To determine the actions undertaken by human resource managers in the event that the incumbent managers do not possess the skills required of them by their job descriptions.

4) In doing this explore any barriers the firm encounter in achieving the above 3 objective.

1.5 Research Questions and Methodology Overview

The following are the research questions which the researcher intends to answer in the current research:

1) What are the objectives in conducting training needs analysis in Saudi Arabian private sector firms?

2) How do these firms determine the skills of those in managerial positions match those of job requirements?

3) What are the actions undertaken by human resource managers in the event that the incumbent managers do not possess the skills required of them by their job descriptions?

4) What barriers do firms encounter in achieving the above 3 objectives?

The researcher adopted a case study approach and investigated the TNA phenomenon in 33 Saudi Arabian firms. In order to answer the first three research questions, an in depth semi-structured interview was carried out. However, for the forth research question the researcher developed a close-ended questionnaire on a Likert Scale.

1.6 Significance of the Study

To justify the research on TNA, a few areas are looked at namely current TNA research, importance of TNA, neglect of the specific research problem by previous researchers, and usefulness of potential application of research's finding.

Much of the current TNA research is empirically driven and shows a serious lack of theory development. This means that current TNA research is lacking theoretical frameworks and research designs that would allow a deep understanding of this area. Hence, this study builds on the existing research by a conceptual framework to examine how the effectiveness and use of TNA.

In recent years, TNA becomes an increasingly visible element in organizational management and performance. Many companies have spent millions of dollars on TNA. This trend has been accompanied by growing concern about the way that TNA is handled by large, diversified companies. This shows that corporate TNA is important which justifies research on TNA. Although, there are many researches done on TNA especially sport TNA, there is still neglect of the specific research problem by previous researchers.

The areas that previous researchers show neglect of the specific research problem are that they did not measure TNA in relation to barriers. Most of them looked into effectiveness of TNA, employee behavior and not in the context Saudi Arabia. Most researchers did not use a comprehensive theoretical framework to look into TNA in Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, little knowledge exists to help evaluate the effectiveness of TNA as increasing companies are spending more money into it.

The usefulness of the potential applications of the research's findings is that TNA will lead to higher productivity and performance. Furthermore, top management will be able to identify what kind of program is useful and what actually in the program that appeal to them. In addition, the result also will let HR managers know how to plan their program. Finally, the research finding will lead to HR managers knowing how to effective influence workforce to get involved in individual and group development.

1.7 Outline of the thesis

The next chapter contains pertinent information about the human resource management, then progresses into a discussion of strategic human resource management. This is where training needs analysis is considered in the context of being a strategic human resource management tool. The phases, importance, and issues about training are presented towards the latter part of this section. The methodology chapter presents the research approach, procedure, sampling, and method of data analysis employed in the research. The results section discusses the statistical results gathered from the survey questionnaire. These are juxtaposed with the qualitative results of the interviews and running records; and compared and contrasted against the findings of previous literature. Finally, conclusions and recommendations are put forth for the private sector companies in the last chapter.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Every study has its own limitations. The limitations of this study are as follows: The investigation will be conducted only in the private sectors in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, the findings will apply only to medium and large size private sector organisations. Finally, only organisations registered at Ministry of Industry will constitute the population of this study.

Summary of chapter 1:

This chapter laid the foundation for the thesis. It introduced the research problem and research questions and purpose of the study. Then the research was justified, and the limitations were given. On these foundations, the report can proceed with detailed description of the research, which is covered in chapter two.

The key achievement of this chapter is that it introduces the training needs analysis in Saudi Arabia and explain why the need to measure effectiveness of TNA. Then it indicates the research gap and the purpose of the research. In addition, the chapter also looks into the overview of the research questions and issues. Finally, the chapter looks into the justification of the research and the overview of the methodology. Next, the review of the research is being looked at.

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

2.1 Introduction

The review of related literature begins with a discussion of human resource management and its model. The discussion then progresses to the topic of strategic human resource management which provides a springboard for a presentation of training as a strategic human resource tool. The review of related literature then concludes with empirical studies related to training needs analysis.

2.2 Human Resource Management

The concepts of human resource management (HRM) started in the mid-1980 and have engaged those in the academic field and those who actually apply its ideals. Academics repeatedly question the rationality and ethics involved in the application of HRM concepts. On the other hand, those who practice it believe that it is the correct approach in the administration of employees (Armstrong, 2004). Even though the academic and practitioner fields do not agree on certain factors about HRM, it is however concurred that the organisation can tap on its workforce and use it as a competitive advantage over its competitors. Unlike technologies and machineries, the workforce cannot be duplicated as easily (Akhtar & Mak, 2003). Thus, the organisation that invests in searching, developing and maintaining its workforce is assured of a distinct set of employees that are hard to imitate as a factor contributing to competitive advantage. This will give the organisation a head start in the industry.

According to Armstrong (2004, p.6) HRM can be defined as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organisation's employees who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives. Armstrong continued that HRM developed into strategic human resource management (SHRM) as the organisation try to accentuate the tactical element of HRM. Billsberry, Salaman & Storey (2005, p. 4) describe SHRM as a unique approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce using an array of cultural, structural and personal techniques. These techniques may include the following: human resource planning, job design, job analysis, employee selection and staffing, training and development, performance appraisal, compensation and benefits, grievance and complaint procedures, employee involvement and participation plans, information sharing programs and attitude surveys. Other companies also added: increasing recruiting efforts, polishing promotion schemes like seniority vs. merits and increasing average training hours per employee per year (Akhtar & Mak 2003). Through the use the aforementioned techniques organisation can help its employees develop job-related abilities and know-how which could greatly boost their effectiveness.

2.2.1 Models of HRM

It is crucial that a discussion of the models of HRM be made because training needs analysis of the manufacturing companies will be assessed and analyzed, not as an exclusive system, but within the context of other HR systems. This is in accordance with the idea that training needs analysis must be assessed in a holistic context. Therefore, looking at the models and components of HRM would allow such holistic analysis.

2.2.1.1 Hard Model

There are two known models for HRM; these are the hard and soft models. Kaye (1999, p.580) define the hard model of HRM as that which focuses on the quantitative, calculative and strategic aspects of managing the workforce in as rational a way as any other economic resource. This model adopts the idea that the workforce is another expense that needs to be lessened and managed. Organizations following this model tend to view the workforce as a cost and not as a resource; thus most of their strategic decisions are motivated by the end result. For instance, to be able to control personnel numbers, organization using this model will turn into downsizing since it is through this that the desired outcome is achieved most quickly. However, this decision fails to consider the human and long-term repercussion of the choice (Kaye, 1999). Most of the time, in this model the term employee is often used instead of people which mirror the kind of relationship the management has with its workforce. Relationships are commonly based on outsourcing, subcontracting and franchising (Druker et al., 1996). It has been said that it is somewhat related to scientific management since it focuses on the resource characteristic of HRM where the workforce are regarded as inert entities not capable of creativity. Therefore, they are not appreciated as a whole but are measured individually on whether they have the right skills and quality that the organization needs (Gill, 1999). To be able to attain competitive advantage in this model, the organization uses a business focus thinking that stress on acquiring added value from the workforce. It puts importance to the interest of management, implementing a tactical method that incorporates business strategies, getting added value from the workforce through human resource development and performance management, creating a robust company culture that is articulated in the mission and vision statements and is strengthened by constant communication, training and performance management (Armstrong, 2004).

2.2.1.2 Soft Model

On the other hand, the soft model is based on the human relations school of thought that centers on communication, motivation and leadership. The workforce in this model are viewed as proactive individuals that are competent and worthy of confidence and partnership (Kaye, 1999). With this model, the employees are considered to be the most valuable resource and will serve as the key in achieving the organisation's goals and objective. By the means of ingenuity, commitment and skills, the workforce adds value into the business. Under this model, people management involves hiring of only the finest people, training and development of employees are suitable and first rate, compensation schemes exhibit the importance of the employee, and obtaining the loyalty of the employee (Druker et al., 1996). It believes in mutuality where the management and the workforce share the same interests and concerns. Moreover, in this model, it is presumed that all the members of the organisation, management and workforce, are acting together as a team creating a well-balanced business (Armstrong 2004).

Based from the explanations above, the hard and soft models seem to have apparent differences. In practice, however, the two models are used hand in hand by organisations. Since times have changed and employees nowadays cannot tolerate inferior treatment, absolute use of the hard model can get the company into trouble. Thus, it needs to be balanced by the soft model to be able to appease the needs of the employees as humans. In the words of Kaye (1999, p. 851) strategic HRM requires a balance of emphasis. It needs to be in line with the organisation's strategy but at the same time must create policies that could lead to employee loyalty.

2.3 Strategic Human Resource Management

Following a discussion of HRM and its models, the review of related literature proceeds with a discussion of strategic human resource management or SHRM. The strategic approach to HRM can be characterized by the following traits: consolidation of internal workforce strategy with the general business strategy, use of line management style in HR execution and policy creation, relationship with the workforce is individualize instead of a traditional communal one, and putting focus on dedication to the organisation and encouraging manager ingenuity. In addition, SHRM plans, designs and administers HR systems rooted on policies and strategies that are substantiated by a philosophy, and the workforce is viewed as a strategic tool that can be a source for competitive advantage (Baker, 1999).

It can be said that SHRM is a more specific method in application of HRM distinguished by a deeper examination of processes and more extensive coverage (Martin-Alcazar, Romero-Fernandez & Sanchez-Gardey, 2008). It is a framework that the firm uses to be able to reach its goals with the use of designed human resource distribution and endeavors. As mentioned, it can be considered as a strategic way in managing the workforce that is in line with the goals of the organisation. A part of its endeavors are continuing problems related to the workforce. The results of its activities are choices that the organisation takes in managing its people and through its activities parts of the organisation can be identified where particular HR strategies are needed (Martin-Alcazar et al., 2008).

SHRM is concerned with organisation, philosophy, culture, excellence, loyalty, complementing the human resource with the expected needs of the organization, accomplishment, proficiency, knowledge management, workforce development, and creation of positive employee relations. It aims to produce strategic capacity through the assurance that the company possessed competent, loyal and inspired personnel that it will require to reach competitive advantage. SHRM also creates a route for the organization to follow in trying to meet the business requirements of the company and at the same time satisfy the personal and shared requirements of the workforce (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).

2.3.1 Models of SHRM

Just like HRM, this framework also has two primary models: the general models and models that recommend specific methods in using SHRM.

2.3.1.1 General Models

Within this category, the three main perspectives are the universalistic, contingency and configurational methods. Later on, the first two methods were renamed as best practice and best fit, respectively.

2.3.1.1.2 Contingency or best-fit

Those that oppose the universalistic approach feel that there is no one best way to do business. There are intrinsic differences among organisations and recommending a universal way to do things will be impossible. That is why proponents of the contingency approach recommend instead a best fit approach. This means that the organisation will need to look and analyse the practices employed by leading companies in their industry. They will need to decide on which of these practices can be emulated, which are not fit with the current needs of the company and then study how these can be modified to be able to fit the organisation's peculiar circumstances. To be able to do this, companies usually use benchmarking. It is essential to learn what practices work for them, and most importantly what lessons could be learned from their success or failure. Businesses could start by identifying the current business needs that need to be addressed. Next examine what actions these business needs require. After which, they may formulate an action plan that incorporates different best practices that fit the identified needs and required actions (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).

Comparing this approach with the universalistic perspective, the contingent view sees that HR policies can be more successful if organizational and situation perspectives are properly incorporated. It is also more intricate in because there are numerous interactions or relationship will be involved. On the other hand, the universalistic is only concerned with linear relationships. In addition, proponents of the contingency perspective hypothesize that the correlation between independent and dependent variables will change once a contingency variable is introduced. In terms of SHRM the business strategy is the contingent variable this means that the firm needs to choose a philosophy behind the firm's strategy then indicate how each of the HR practices will align with the chosen strategy to be able to achieve business performance (Chang & Huang, 2005).

2.3.1.1.3 Configuration approach

According to this perspective, the success of an organisation's business strategy relies on the degree to which it matches the vertical or external fit and the horizontal or internal fit. This means that those companies that prepare bundles of HR practices are more likely to achieve high level of performance as long as its strategy achieves high levels of fit (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). The idea of fit in this description is always present in the discussion of SHRM. External fit is associated with the relationship between the HR policies and business strategy while internal fit deals with how the HRM practices are arranged and organised, whether they complement each other to be able to bring a positive effect to the organisation's performance (Chow, Huang & Liu, 2008).

This approach also focuses on the notion of bundling -- where HR practices are developed and implemented in conjunction so that they are interconnected facilitating the matching and strengthening of the bundled practices. The rationale behind this is that once the practices are bundled and are interconnected, they become consistent as a whole and because they have similarities, the practices bolster the intended effect. Another reason is since performance of the employee depends on their skills and drive, it is but logical to target both at the same time using HR practices. Skills can be improved using the selective hiring and training practices while employee drive can be targeted using job security or compensation schemes. All these practices as discussed earlier can complement and be interconnected with one another. In one study, it was found out that when best practices are used together with complementing HR practices, the result is an increase in performance as well as increase in the effect of the complementing practices. Bundling aims to gain unity among the practices of the company, which is one of the consequences in implementing SHRM. Unity only happens when multiple practices and policies reinforce one another to be able to attain the goals of the organisation (Armstrong & Baron, 2002).

2.3.2 High-performance Working Model

This model deals with the creation of interconnected methods that can affect the performance of the organisation by means of production, quality, degree of customer service, progress, revenue and lastly improving shareholder value. It can be attained by improving the abilities of the employees and keeping their motivation up. To start this, there should be strong leadership from the management, a clear vision and carefully studied benchmark. By doing this the initiative will have a drive and path to follow. Main drivers of the model are (Armstrong & Baron, 2002):

1) Power is dispersed to those employees dealing with the customer first-hand -- to give them more ways in refreshing the customer experience.

2) Training at all levels of the company, to improve skills in self- management and team abilities -- to facilitate improvements in performance and encourage the capability of the organization.

3) Methods in implementation, operation and workforce are all parallel with the goals of the organization -- this is to create trust, motivation and loyalty among the employee as they are guided to where the firm wants to be.

4) Employees leaving the organization due to changes are treated justly and being committed to the social responsibility of the organization to the community -- this signals that the corporation values trust and is committed to the relationship it has both within and outside of the organization.

Various practices are involved when a company decides to implement a high-performance working model and some of these are: meticulous application and hiring procedures, comprehensive and appropriate training and development programs, compensation schemes and procedures for accomplishment management (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). Once the model is implemented, there are certain obstacles that it may face. One is that some managers might oppose the model and refuse the dispersion of power. With this model, the organization will become decentralized and the chain of command will be eliminated causing some managers to lose control over their subordinates. According to research, managers that are less informed about developments in people management are more likely to resist this model. This is because they believe in the traditional practices that do not trust employees and leave total control to few individuals only. However, managers that value quality products and excellent service, educate themselves with the latest techniques available and are more likely to welcome this model. Another barrier for its implementation is that it can be very expensive and more often than not most organizations miscalculate the cost and benefits that it will yield (Gill, 2008).

Most proponents of the model recommend that companies implement it only in low to moderate coverage where the benefits outweigh the cost. Studies have shown that expense incurred in high levels of implementation of the model prevail over the benefits. Since this model is expensive to implement and results are not seen immediately then most shareholders will reject its implementation. This is because they are more concern about short-term returns. Stocks are loosely owned commodity that if often traded for profits. Companies take care of their stockholders by making sure that the money they invested is returned immediately instead of creating more value for that stock. Since this model has a delay in returns, managers proposing it will surely receive resistance from shareholders (Gill, 2008). Others also think that the government where the company does business with has an indirect participation in the formation of a business environment that is conducive for this model. It is through policies that the Government mandates on how the organization should do business together with the privileges and responsibilities of everyone in the organization. Lastly, managers can also meet resistance from the employees that will be affected by the change once the model is implemented. It can happen especially if the employees feel that the management is introducing the change to replace them. As initially discussed, without trust employees are less cooperative with management initiatives. For this model to work and be successful, it is essential that employees are willing to be trained, are proactive in sharing ideas and are dedicated in giving quality products and excellent service. All of these are achievable if the employee trusts and cooperates with management. However, these are very hard to maintain since there has been a long history of distrust among managers and employees globally. What management can do is to offer programs that can build and maintain this trust just like systems that offer job security (Gill, 2008).

2.3.3 High-commitment Management Model

One crucial factor in this model is the focus on improving the mutual commitment of the employee and management. This model can be defined as a management style that relies on the high level of trust between managers and employees so that employees' conduct is governed by the employees themselves instead of supervisors pressuring them with penalty. This also intends to obtain stronger commitment from employees (Armstrong & Baron, 2002). It also deals with hiring procedures that intend to interest and hire only dedicated and adaptable personnel, dedication and willingness to learn are awarded by job advancement and employment security and procedures for open communication and collaboration (Hutchinson, Kinnie & Purcell, 2000). There are different ways to gain this high commitment and here are some of the recommended ways (Armstrong & Baron, 2002):

1) Creation of career paths that focus on dedication and willingness to learn as the most important characteristic of an employee seeking promotion at any level within the firm

2) Strict job definitions should be eliminated instead highly functional adaptability should be implemented

3) Hierarchy in the chain of command should be flattened out and to remove status difference between the executives and common employee

4) Teams should be trusted that they will do what they are supposed to do which is information dissemination, working as team in a structured way, and solving problems as a team

5) Management should carefully analyse and design the jobs offered to make sure they are not redundant and can offer substantial amount of satisfaction to the employee

6) The organization should be willing to embrace a policy that guarantee job security even during times of economic downturn, redeployment could be used rather than lay-offs and offer part-time positions during irregular high demand to avoid hiring permanent employees that will soon become redundant

7) Introduce better compensation schemes like profit sharing and also evaluation procedures for performance

8). Include the workforce quality management as well as other initiatives

2.4 Training and Development

Training is not what it used to be as organizations continue to change so as the field of training and development of employees. Employees are essential tool of the organization in moving forward towards competitive advantage and the HR needs to follow through by providing the necessary programs to enhance the skills and knowledge of the employees. Organizations as observed in the past years continue to eliminate hierarchical chains of command and management is flattened out. With this, power is dispersed giving the employees a chance to hold power over critical decisions, however they should be prepared to handle such power for the organization to benefit. This is where training and development comes in, to help employees prepare themselves in the coming changes and equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge to be able to handle new responsibilities brought about by change.

Orientations in Training: Since training should cast away from traditional thinking any organization that wanted to have competitive advantage through its people will need to focus on the following factors and should be integrated in their training and development program.

Strategic Orientation: Training should be carefully designed in accordance with the mission, business strategy, tools and culture of the organization. This is to make sure that the training is at par with what is happening within the organization. It should be in line with the overall business strategy and is designed to follow the same direction as the company. It must answer the needs of the employees as well as of the upper management and must be compatible with the type of employees the organization has. Once employees undergo the training, the program aims to make them more efficient, adaptable, accommodating and motivated. If the training module is designed in accordance with the business strategies, it becomes a strategic tool for the organization to mold its employees to the direction it wants to take (Sims, 1998).

In addition to considering the internal situations within the company, HR should also be concerned with external or environmental situations to make the module more comprehensive. Through this way HR could achieve the needed flexibility from the employees (Sims, 1998). They are not only skilled in dealing with internal issues of the organization but are also skilled in adapting to external factors. To take this strategic approach, the Training department or HR department should conduct the following activities (a) identify existing training being executed and assess whether they are still needed; (b) examine within the training programs which modules can be removed; (c) remaining training modules should be re-evaluated on how these can more aligned with the business strategy and reinforce the mission and vision of the organization; and (d) identify new modules that can be added to strengthen the training program. The underlying principle in this orientation is that a training that is aligned with the existing strategies and future direction of the organization can greatly increase performance (Sims, 1998).

Customer Orientation: For training to be fully encompassing and effective, some organizations take time to involve their customers in the design of training programs. This is just logical since the customers are the first persons to experience the benefits of training. Take for example a sales representative that just received training about the store's product, etiquette and conduct. This employee will surely be able to answer all the questions of the customer about the product he is interested and it is also possible that the sales representative could offer additional information that the customer might not know about the product (Sims, 1998). And since etiquette and conduct was included, the representative will be more cordial and accommodating to the customer. This could result to a sure sale plus a satisfied customer. Thus, is important to hear out what the customer thinks about the company's service or product to be able to know the areas that need further improvement. Their feedback should be taken into consideration since they know first-hand what works for them and what does not. Acquiring their feedback can be done through surveys, commentaries, interviews and letters or e-mails. With the advancement of technology, there are various ways this could be done. Taking this step signals to the customer that they are valued and that the organization cares about what they think (Sims 1998).

Performance Improvement Orientation: Employees should be assisted by training to enable them to reach high levels of performance so that the organization can correspondingly reach its goals with a high level success. Training can do this by (1) helping employees do their current job right now by giving them training programs and modules that are actually needed at the moment. These should be given at the right time and at the right frequencies; and (2) providing assistance to future requirements of the job as the demands change. This may be done through designing a learning model that can help the workforce and organization learn and grow with the change. The double responsibility of training can be achieved by focusing on the key skills and knowledge that the workforce needs at the moment and in the future. The Training Department will need to identify these key skills and knowledge and then build the training program around it. Trainers and training managers could make use of practices that are found to be successful to a related organization. As mentioned above the organization does not need to copy it as is, but try to learn from their success and failure of similar others to be able to develop a unique practice suitable to their own requirements (Sims, 1998).

Accountability Orientation: When a company is faced with a recession, most will think twice about spending on unnecessary investments and sometimes training is sacrificed in favor of other investments. Training personnel are then responsible for making sure that training programs are not seen as such by designing these as cost-effective, flexible, relevant, and as possible, and for which they have clear accountability. The Training department should make sure that the contents of the training are relevant and is needed by the organization. Moreover, they should make use of the available resources the organization as to offer; therefore, the design should be flexible enough so that it can adjust to unexpected situations. Options should be available on how the training could be delivered to the employees, and there should be a system of assessment to ensure that the training program was able to reach its aims (Sims, 1998).

2.4.1 Training and SHRM

As discussed above training was considered to be one of the best practices an organization can implement to be able to successfully adapt SHRM. In fact, Martin's (2007) theoretical framework features training as critical variable determining managerial performance of managers. Martins (2007) conducted a study to be able to determine the main variables that influence the management of human resources of first tier managers. The investigation has been carried out in an aerospace manufacturing company through interviews and running records of the organization. In the theoretical framework which Martins (2007) validated in the study, training and development is a variable that affect the performance of first tier managers, along with a clear definition of their roles, their perceptions and attitudes, and broader organizational support.

Wilson (1994) shares that managers are asked to manage effectually, they need to be equipped with competencies to enable them to do so. Thus, they need both soft and technical skills to enable effective management, consistent with holistic development. Successful management of their staff is not possible if management does not have the good will to allot financial resources to push this thrust. Such management investment represents the concern of management towards its employees, which in turn causes them to be more committed and engaged with the enterprise (Santos & Stewart, 2003). In a study cited by Santos & Stewart (2003 as cited by Martins, 2007), the Employment Survey in Britain revealed 94% of the sample saying that training has been useful for them in terms of financial personal benefit, according them with opportunities to move up the corporate ladder, being more qualified for their current and for future posts, and increasing their organizational engagement.

Figure ____. Four-factor framework on variables affecting performance of first-tier managers.

Source: Martins, L.P. (2007). A holistic framework for the strategic management of first tier managers. Management Decision, 45(3), 619.

However, it should be noted that training should be conducted in conjunction with other HR practices to be able to achieve the needed improvement in performance that SHRM aims for. Training itself is just a tool of the organization to be able to prepare its employees for the changes that will come together with the implementation of SHRM. Organizations serious in taking their people to a new direction should carefully study what practices they really need to get to where they want to be. The relationship between training and the SHRM models is illustrated below:

Training

Universalistic

Attitudes and motivation

Behaviors

Human capital

Contingency

Performance and productivity

Configurational

Profit and financial indicators

Source: Moore, Saks & Tharenou (2007)

Figure 1: Relationship between training and SHRM

Based on the holistic approach to training needs analysis, it should be carried out with a view or organizational needs. This suggests that there must be careful consideration of company strategy in doing training needs analysis.

On the communication of company strategy, Al-Ghamdi & Ahmed (2007) set out to determine which communication means are most commonly utilized by employees to garner data about strategy. Moreover, they have assessed the influence of seniority on each of the means selected. The setting for the investigation is a manufacturing organization based in Saudi Arabia, with a combination of both managerial and rank and file employees being employed in the study, totaling 187 respondents answering the survey tool in all. The findings of the study indicate that the incumbents are not satisfied with the present information that they have about enterprise strategy. Moreover, results likewise indicate that communication vehicles such as personal dialogue and group sessions are rated more effective compared to bulletin boards, memoranda and company news. Moreover, those who have longer tenure make use of more varied means of communication to be able to yield information on strategy (Al-Ghamdi & Ahmed, 2007). As such, the researchers suggest that managers be able to leverage on communication means to allow their subordinates to have a more profound appreciation of company strategy. There is a need to re-orient managers on the use of more effective communication vehicles for this purpose (Al-Ghamdi & Ahmed, 2007). The following empirical study point out the promise of training needs analysis as yet another vehicle for communicating company strategy.

This study shows that training needs analysis may also be used to facilitate organizational change, suggesting further its strategic value in HRM. Reed & Vakola (2006) have investigated the feasibility of utilizing a training needs analysis tool for making an impact on an enterprise's change process. The enterprise that served as the subject of the investigation is a large-scale, complicated health system that is in the process of migrating from a conventional hierarchy with centralized power to one in which employees are more empowered. Thus, a training needs analysis tool has been crafted to aid in the effort, so that the outcomes desired from the change intervention may be more easily attained. The tool has also been envisioned to expedite the identification of what is effective and what is not to be able to push for the strategic change agenda of the enterprise (Reed & Vakola, 2006).

A collateral learning structure has been established for this purpose and interviews have been carried out with key officers of the organization to be able to garner their perspective about the change process, its rationale and urgency, the key people involved, and the degree to which it will be beneficial for them. There are salient findings that have been yielded from the study. One is there are cultural and change management issues that have been gathered from the training needs analysis tool. Yet another result is the idea that the training needs analysis instrument has been effectively introduced as a change management tool. Moreover, being able to associate the process of needs analysis with the current processes of the enterprise was a critical facet in the effectiveness of the exercise, and which allowed participants to more clearly comprehend its strategic value. The training needs analysis process has been meaningfully dovetailed to each party in the enterprise, by carefully considering the peculiar needs, circumstances, and readiness for change of those who were involved (Reed & Vakola, 2006).

2.4.2 Training Methods

One of the most common training methods uses the lecture or seminar (Bassi & Van Buren, 1998). With this approach, either a member of the training staff or outside consultant lectures to a few or many employees at one time. To save money, in-house staff are used when a training program is presented many times and when the training staff has the time and expertise to deliver the training. As with college lectures, many activities can take place within a seminar, including lecture, the use of audiovisual aids, discussion, and question-and-answer periods (Fowler, 1995). Listening to lectures and watching videos can indeed be boring, but research has indicated that lecture is still an effective training method (Goldstein, 1993). Many trainers, however, do not consider lecture to be an effective training technique (Carroll, Paine, & Ivancevich, 1972).

Yet another training method is simulation exercises, which allow the trainee to work with equipment and in an environment similar to that found in the actual job. The exercises offer the advantage of allowing the trainee to work under actual working conditions without the consequences of mistakes (Lierman, 1994).

The use of role play allows the trainee to perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out simulated roles. It is used in many types of training situations, from supervisors practicing performance appraisal reviews to sales clerks taking customer orders. Though role plays allow employees to practice what is being taught, they are not for everyone. Many employees feel uneasy and embarrassed about being required to "act." This reluctance can be reduced to some extent by using warm-up exercises and praising employees after they participate (Becker, 1998).

One of the most successful training methods has been behaviour modeling. Behaviour modeling is similar to role play except that trainees role play ideal behaviour rather than the behaviour they might normally perform. The behaviour modeling technique begins first with a discussion of a problem, why it occurred, and the employee behaviours necessary to correct the problem. Next, the employees view a videotape of another employee who correctly solves the problem (Mann & Decker, 1984).

Apprentice training is used by more than 50,000 people annually and is typically found in craft and trades such as carpentry and plumbing. Despite its increased popularity, some researchers have criticized apprenticeship programmes. First, the emphasis during the apprenticeship often is in the production of work as opposed to teaching new skills to the apprentice (Strauss, 1967). Second, employers often shun apprenticeships for fear that the apprentice will become a competitor or join a competing company.

Coaching is another popular method of training new employees. With coaching, a new employee is assigned to an experienced employee, who is told to "show the kid the ropes." Coaching provides just-in-time training, flexible scheduling, customized training, and a small financial commitment than many other types of training (Leeds, 1996).

2.4.3 Culture and Training and Development

Before discussing how culture effects training and development, it is appropriate to define what culture is. Peterson (1997:64) quotes Kluckhohn (1951), who defines culture as "patterned ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting that are acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols and that constitute the distinctive achievement of a human group."

Johnson (1991) provides an example of a lack of "fit" of western management strategies in the third world countries. He stated that most third world countries do not support individualism. Their cultures are collectivist in nature. He suggests that though collectivism does not preclude leadership, it does suggest that training programme for third world countries need to be designed within the collectivist philosophy. Hofstede (1980), quoted in Weir (1966:399), observe that "Arab countries are mid-way between the highly westernised countries which rate strongly on individualism, and the Latin Americans societies which rank at the other extreme."

Huang (1996) support the view that culture has to be taken into consideration when designing training programmes. He remarks that although human nature and the human brain operate in the same way the world over, people from other cultures speak different language and behave differently. Each country has its own values, beliefs, ideas, and views of the world. If the trainer does not understand the characteristics of trainee's culture, history, and socio-economic background, even the best programme will not be effective.

Schermerhorn (1994) carried out an interview with Asma Abdullah, a corporate trainer in inter-cultural management. Although she conducted training programmes in Malaysia, her finding are applicable to training programmes in other countries as well. Asma Abdullah emphasises that training programmes must start with understanding of values at the individual as well of the culture levels. The influence of ethnic values is very important in making employees acquire the appropriate skills on the job. It has to start with self-appreciation and only then can employees find meaning on what they do. To her, effective training will only occur when the person's personal and cultural values have been identified and taken into consideration. When this area is ignored, training will not be successful when only foreign elements is being introduced.

Corporate trainer Asma Abdullah was asked about the best approach to take for training in a foreign environment. She stated that the value of the participants must be affirmed; specially those which are part of their cultural heritage and are the basis of their shared practices. Once these values are indentified, then one can begin to look for gaps in performance and create an awareness of what is needed. The trainer will then focus on the steps to be taken to develop new skills. For example, if the trainer wants to talk about motivating, leading, negotiating, selling or speaking, it is best to start with what the learners do well before showing some chart on Maslow's theory, Posner's leadership practices, or selling skills from some standard package that has been develop elsewhere. Many foreign trainers make grave errors because they do not consider the values and beliefs of the trainee's culture. Training must make a fit with the culture of those being trained, including the material being taught, as well as the methods being used.

Abu-Doleh (1996) reports that Al-Faleh (1987), in his study of the culture influences on Arab management development, asserts that "a country's culture has a great influence on the individual and managerial climate, on organizational behaviour, and ultimately on the types of management development programmes offered." Furthermore, he argues that culture has its roots in a long history of traditions, in religion, and in past and present philosophical, or economic ideology.

Alabdlohab (1987) indicates that cultural factors cannot be ignored in training programmes. To ignore these factors can make the difference between success and failure. Although Arab countries want to develop economically and modernise their cities, most do not such progress to have a negative effect on their culture and way of life that they have lived for hundreds of years. Managers and workers should not be forced to conform to Western way of doing business even though they may have to deal with them perhaps on a daily basis. The first step in developing training programmes in Arab countries is understanding the culture and those factors within the culture that have an influence on the life and work of the people. The second step is to recognize the fact that these countries are in the process of economic development and modernization, and that these are to be achieved without changing the culture or significantly changing the way of their daily life. Culture values, religion, tribal customs, and tradition, all play a major role not on a daily life but also in the way which business is conducted. The third step is the designing of training programmes that will not compromise these values while at the same time, assist people in the development of business and industry that will promote economic growth and development within the country and give it a greater participation in the international marketplace.

2.4.4 Training and Development in Arab Countries

The need for human resources in the Arab countries is tremendous if nationals are to be available to support business and industry in both the private and public sectors. The need lies, among others, at the managerial level of all sectors such as hospitals, banks, marketing, exporting, factory and production management. Because of the shortage, most Arab countries have had to recruit foreign managers temporarily for posts usually set apart for nationals, until sufficient numbers are qualified to assume those responsibilities adequately (Atiyya, 1993).

One of the current problems for managers in Arab countries is the management development programmes offered by local institutes are translated from foreign sources and not written with Arab managers in mind. Trainers are often heard complaining about text books, exercises, and cases having little relevance to their situation. Most films used in training are imported. Only one agency, the Saudi Arabian Institute of Public Administration, has staff actively involved in the adaptation of programmes and equipment to the local needs. Many Arab managers who learned their skills from experience on the job believe that the best way to prepare future Arab managers is on the job, rather than investing large sums of money in training programmes that do not meet their needs (Atiyyah: 1993).

2.4.5 The Importance of Training Needs Analysis

Witkin & Altshud (1995) represent training needs assessment as a process that involves three stages, namely the phases before, during, and after the assessment or evaluation proper. Succinctly, the period before the assessment proper involved scanning the situation and the circumstances within which needs are to be identified. The main output of this stage is the initial plan for the next stage. Boydell (1976) argues that a training need is present when the conduct of training will enable the adequate resolution of a specific improvement area. Moreover, he shares that the analysis of a training need must be effective before training becomes relevant. This idea is held in common with Bee & Bee (2003) who assert that the identification of training needs must be driven by operational issues.

Bowman & Wilson (2008) opine that training needs analysis is critical in enabling a successful and effective development cycle, which involves the stages of training design, implementation, and assessment. In addition, they point out the difficulties in carrying out the process, attributed to the different parties that have a take on it. These may cause differences in their perceptions of the intended outcomes and what needs to be attained. Yet another difficulty is the idea that external providers may face issues when they depend upon analyses that are imposed upon them, and in which they have not been part of. The quality of such analysis is crucial in ensuring that whatever is being offered in training is what the workforce needs for increased leverage in their niche (Bowman & Wilson, 2008). They thus suggest that a training needs analysis needs to be carefully carried out to increase the probability of success of the other stages which strongly rely on TNA's effectiveness. Bowman & Wilson's (2008) view is supported by Kenney & Reid (1986) who suggest that the comprehensiveness of training strongly depend on the quality of the training needs analysis.

Kaufman & Watkins (1996) suggest that this first stage is critical in determining the effectiveness of the whole training needs assessment process. The core exercise in the second stage of the training needs assessment is the gathering of empirical information, otherwise known as data. They recommend that a mixed methods approach be adopted in carrying out this task to be able to gather data that validates each other; thus, quantitative data from surveys, for instance, may be validated with interviews which are primarily qualitative. Such information are processed by Witkin & Altshud (1995) in terms of system levels. Briefly, System Level 1 involves individuals from the recipients of the system being investigated. On the other hand, System Level 2 pertain to those parties who provide the services to System Level 1 clients, e.g. HR training providers and managers. Finally, System Level 3 involves the resources that are entailed in the delivery of the system, encompassing material and human resources. The core outcomes of this stage are the qualifiers for effectiveness in meeting the needs at each system level (Wilkin & Altshuld, 1995). The third stage following the assessment deals with an evaluation of the whole process and the manner by which this was carried out. The main output of this stage are executive reports and briefings (Wilkin & Altshuld, 1995).

2.4.6 The Process of Training Needs Analysis

Training needs analysis is the first step in the development of an employee training system (McCahon, Rys & Ward, 1996; Schneier, Guthrie, & Olian, 1998). It is the process of determining the training needs of a particular organization. It is likewise expected that there are times when this process points to the fact that training is not the solution to an enterprise's pressing issues and may only be a palliative at best (Carr, 1994).

Sleezer (1993) puts forth a model that conducts analysis at three fronts: organizational, task, and person.

Figure ____. Types of analysis: Training needs.

Organizational analysis: The objective of organizational analysis is to identify where within the organization training is needed. Goldstein (1993) and Schuler and Jackson (1996) note that any organization analysis involves analysing the whole organization, and begins with an examination of the short- and long- terms objectives of the organization. Scarpello and Ledvinka (1988) argue that there is no easy and direct method to achieve this process. However, Cascio (1992) mentioned that the important question at this level is "Will training produce change in employee behaviour that will contributor to our organization's goals?" (p.237). Broadwell (1993) asserts that the purpose of organizational analysis is to determine those organizational factors that either facilitate or inhibit training effectiveness. The exercise ought to include a survey of employee readiness for training. Training is deemed effective only if the organization is willing to provide a supportive climate for training; if it can afford an effective program and if the goals of the program are consistent with those of the organization.

Wexley and Latham (1991) propose that organization analysis consists of an examination of the following factors:

1- The relationship between the organizational and its external environment so as to determine the links between external variables and the needs for training and development.

2- How effective the organization and its various sub-units are in researching the objectives they set out to achieve.

3- The organization's human resources, to assess current and long-term training and development requirements.

4- The organization's internal environment, to identify those problem areas that can be tackled by means of training and development, and those which could potentially constitute unusually strong resistance to change.

The organization needs analysis must be conducted by the managers who set the organization goals (Cascio, 1992; Goldstein; Taylor, 1996).

Wexley and Latham (1991) and Taylor (1996) stress that the primary objective of organization analysis is to determine whether the organization is achieving its stated objectives. If it is not, the analysis must provide answers as to why that is the case and to what extent the deficiencies could be remedied through training and development section.

Task analysis: Involves establishing what the content of the training proframme should be, based on analysis of the tasks or duties involved in the job (Chruden and Sherman, 1984). Goldstein (1993:22) points out that "the first step is a job description in behavioural terms. It is not a description of the worker. The narrative specifies the individual's duties and the special condition under which the job is performed. The second procedure, most commonly referred to as task specification, further denotes all the tasks required on the job so that eventually the particular skills, knowledge, and attitude required to perform the job will become clear."

Moreover, Armstrong (1996:538-539) points out that for training purposes, it is important to ensure that the information obtained from this analysis specifies:

1- Any problem faced by job holders in learning the basic skills and applying them successfully.

2- Any weaknesses in the performance of existing job holders arising from gaps in knowledge, lack of skill or poor motivation which need to be certified by training.

3- Any areas where competence levels are clearly not up to the standards required.

4- Any areas where future changed in work processes, methods or job responsibilities indicates a learning need.

5- How training is carried out at present -- and how effective it is.

Armstrong (ibid) concludes that the output of the job analysis should be a training specification. Cascio (1992:238) agrees that "job analysis, performance appraisals, interviews (with jobholders, supervisors, and higher management), and analyses of operating problems (quality control, downtime reports, and customers complaints) all provide important input to the analysis of training needs." He also indicates that managers who specify how the organization's goals are going to be achieved are responsible for analysing the hob analysis needs. Sims, Veres & Heninger (1989) define task analysis as a process that involves using the job analysis method to obtain information about the job itself as well as the overall performance of the employees responsible for each of the tasks. Part of this process is determining whether there is a training program for each important task. Task analysis is important because training will be effective only if it addresses an area in which employees are weak. If every employee in an organization is already proficient at a particular task, it would be futile to provide them with training on this task. Likewise, if the organization is not aware of a particular training need and thus does not provide training in that areas, employee performance will be less optimal (Gent & Dell'Omo, 1989). Moreover, it is important to that training needs arising from task analysis be stated in the form of objectives. These should concretely state what learners are expected to do; the conditions under which they are expected to do it; and the level at which they are expected to do it (Mager, 1984).

Person analysis: Is the final step in identifying training needs and it focuses on whether the individual employees needs training and, if so, of what kind (McGehee and Thayer, 1961). Cascio (1992) and Schuler and Jackson (1996) assert that the difference between desired performance and actual performance is the individual's training needs.

According to Bass and Vaughan (1966), quoted in Scarpello and Ledvinka (1988:495), the information about a person's job behaviour can be obtained by:

1- Directly observing job performance.

2- Reviewing supervisory evaluations of performance.

3- Using diagnostic tests, such as written ability tests and work samples.

4- Comparing the behaviours of well -- performing employees with those of poorly performing employees.

5- Discussing with employees their individual job performance and factors that may inhibit that performance.

Scarpello and Ledvinka (ibid) also indicate that once performance deficiency is identified, the next step is to determine whether it can be remedied by training or whether it is due to other factors.

According to Wexley and Latham (1991), the personal job analysis comprises two parts: the first part relates to how well a worker effectively performs the job. This can be assessed using any of the three methods: (1) observing the worker's behaviour while performing the job; (2) recording the production rate in a given time; and (3) applying proficiency tests to measure worker performance. Other economic performance indicators include data such as workers' injuries, absenteeism, tardiness and waste. The second part of personal analysis entails identifying the skills, knowledge, and attitude necessary for the worker to perform the job satisfactorily. Cascio (1992) stresses that the individual needs analysis should be carried out by managers and workers who do the work to achieve those goals.

The needs analysis is determining which employees need training and in which areas. Person analysis is based on the recognition that not every employee needs further training for every task performed. Person analysis uses one or more of the following methods for each employee: performance appraisal scores, surveys, interviews, skill and knowledge tests, and critical incidents (McGehee & Thayer, 1961).

Performance appraisal scores may show low ratings on a particular dimension may indicate that additional training on that dimension is needed. Conversely, if most employees score high on a particular dimension, relatively little training is needed. Although using performance scores appear fairly easy as a method of needs assessment, there are problems that can interfere with their use. One is the ratings errors which can reduce the accuracy of performance appraisal scores. The most relevant are leniency errors and strictness errors. If the performance appraisal scores are consistently high because of leniency error, a human resource professional might incorrectly conclude that employees are proficient in a particular area and thus need no training, Likewise, consistently low scores might be interpreted as a need for training, when in fact, the actual cause of the low scores is rater error (Herbert & Doverspike, 1990).

Another problem is that rarely are there situations in which all employees score either high or low on a dimension. Instead, it is more common for only a few employees to score poorly. In this case, a person examining the average performance appraisal score might conclude that training in a particular dimension is unnecessary. But the conclusion would only be partially correct. While it is true that not everyone needs training in that dimension, concluding that training should not be conducted would be incorrect. The correct interpretation is that training should be conducted for the few employees who scored low for that dimension. Moreover, the current performance management system may not provide the type of information needed to conduct a training needs analysis (Herbert & Doverspike, 1990).

Another common approach to determine training needs is designing and administering a survey that asks employees what knowledge and skills they believe should be included in future training (Brinkerhoff, 1986). Surveys offer several advantages. Surveys eliminate the problems of performance-rating errors. In addition, employees often know best their own strengths and weaknesses. It is thus advantageous to ask employees about what they needs (Graham & Mihal, 1986). Training needs can also be determined by surveys even when the organization has not previously made an effort to design an effective performance appraisal system or adequate job descriptions. The main disadvantage to surveys is that employees may not be honest and that the organization may not be able to afford the training suggested by employees (Graham & Mihal, 1986).

Training needs surveys may be conducted in many ways. The most common method is a questionnaire that asks employees to list the areas in which they would like further or future training. One means is to provide a list of job-related tasks and knowledge, and have the employees rate the need for training on each task and knowledge. The results of these ratings are given to supervisors who can validate the results. This process is used to determine whether the supervisors agree with their employees' perceptions and to prioritize training needs (Graham & Mihal, 1986).

One other means of conducting needs analysis is through interviews which are usually done with a selected number of employees. Interviews are not used as extensively as surveys, but can yield even more in-depth answers to questions about training needs (Cline & Seibert, 1993). The main advantage of interviews is that employee feelings and attitudes are revealed more clearly than with survey questionnaires. The main disadvantage of interviews is that data are often difficult to quantify and analyse (Steadham, 1980).

One other means of determining training needs is through knowledge and skills tests. If majority of employees score poorly in such tests, training across the organization is indicated. If only a few employees score poorly, they are singled out for individual training. The main issue with using testing as a method to determine training needs is that relatively few tests are available for this purpose. An organization that intends to use this method may probably have to construct its own tests, and proper construction may be time consuming and expensive (Steadham, 1980).

The critical incident technique entails the sorting out of critical incidents into dimensions to be able to garner examples of good and poor performance. Dimensions with many examples of poor performance are considered to be areas in which many employees are performing poorly and in which additional training is indicated (Glickman & Vallance, 1958).

2.5 Gaps in the present literature and the conceptual model for this study

In the aforementioned section, the writer reviewed a number of research studies carried out in the past. Most research studies had used the survey method as their data collection process and quantitative or qualitative analysis as their data analysis. Similarly, some studies had used field research and direct observation as their data collection method. Likewise, a few studies had been syntheses of research studies published in online libraries. The writer finds that the research methodologies of the research studies that used field research and research syntheses as their methodologies are very strong. However, the studies that used the survey method may need to be analyzed more deeply and broadly.

With regards to the field studies, the researchers collected original information at the physical location, instead of relying on previous materials or surveys. Their data analysis and results are also very profound since they used readings from different oxygen apparatus in their statistical analysis. Similarly, the studies that used research syntheses as their data collection methodologies also had very strong methods since they abided by the conventional protocols of research syntheses studies.

With regards to the studies carried out via means of survey, their research approach had been mostly deductive, which means that they used a theory to form hypotheses; thereafter a research strategy was designed to either confirm or refute the hypotheses. This approach may give very accurate and precise results; however, the current literature does not fully reveal sound theoretical frameworks with regards to TNA. It would have been beneficial if researchers had approached their studies using a dual method of both induction and deduction. With deduction they could have used existing theories to form hypotheses and then test it. (Their chosen method) However, with induction, first data would have been collected in the form of interviews and then it is analyzed so that a theory/hypothesis can be formed (Saunders et al., 2003).

The use of dual methods of induction and deduction would have helped their studies add a new methodological dimension to the literature. The results could have been compared with existing theories of effectiveness of TNA in the current literature. This would have helped them understand why there is lack of protocols and what newer concepts can be added in the theories. The advantage of using both, induction and deduction, as research approaches is that they could have helped them limit the dependency on over generalizations (Saunders et al., 2003).

Furthermore, with regards to timeline, almost all studies used a cross-sectional format. It is noteworthy here that cross-sectional research studies focus on a single time frame i.e. researchers only take a single time-segment from the entire spectrum. In other words, they perform their experiments only once and reply on the data they have gathered to form conclusions. The opposite of cross-sectional format is the longitudinal format, which as the name suggests takes multiple time-segments from the entire spectrum. These research studies ignored the significance of a longitudinal design, may be because of limited funding. However, since studies on TNA in Saudi Arabia are lacking it would have been beneficial if researchers embarked upon a longitudinal format and included more variables into their study.

Lastly, the literature reveals little systematic evaluation of TNA, which made it important to evaluate TNA effectiveness. Little knowledge exists to help evaluate the effectiveness of TNA as more and more companies are starting to question the effectiveness and the large expenditures involved in it. Hence, it is important to look at whether TNA is an effective tool for a company to invest in before deciding to use TNA as a method of achieving higher performance and productivity. It is important to evaluate TNA effectiveness as it lets executioners know whether the right TNA has been chosen and the value of the program in monetary term.

2.6 Chapter Summary

The review of related literature begins with giving out the various definitions of human resource management or HRM. Briefly, it is defined as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization's employees who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives. Moreover, the hard and soft models of HRM were presented. The hard model emphasizes the quantitative, calculative and strategic facets of managing the workforce in as rational a way as any other economic resource. In addition, this model adopts the idea that the workforce is another expense that needs to be lessened and managed. On the contrary, the soft model is anchored on the human relations school of thought that give emphasis to communication, motivation and leadership.

Strategic human resource management or SHRM has also been tackled. Its distinguishing characteristics include the following: consolidation of internal workforce strategy with the general business strategy, use of line management style in HR execution and policy creation, relationship with the workforce is individualize instead of a traditional communal one, and putting focus on dedication to the organization and encouraging manager ingenuity. The three main perspectives of SHRM, namely, the universalistic, contingency and configurational methods were discussed as well. The universalistic view presumes that there exists HRM practices that are cut above the rest and can be considered as best practices. On the other hand, proponents of the contingency approach recommend instead a best fit approach. Finally, in the configuration approach, the success of an organization's business strategy relies on the degree to which it matches the vertical or external fit and the horizontal or internal fit.

The high-performance working model was also presented, sharing that it deals with the creation of interconnected methods that can affect the performance of the organization by means of production, quality, degree of customer service, progress, revenue and lastly improving shareholder value. Moreover, the high-commitment management model focuses on improving the mutual commitment of the employee and management.

The importance and process of training needs analysis, the various training methods, and culture as factor affecting training and development were also tackled briefly, to conclude the review of related literature.

Chapter Three: Conceptual frame work

3.1 Introduction

The conceptual framework proposed below was originally made for the purpose of the current research. A brief explanation of each of the variables is found thereafter. The proposed framework shows that the current research aims to ascertain the objectives of Saudi Arabian private sector companies in conducting their TNA. The objectives that shall be assessed are as follows: using and developing their knowledge; researching, investigating and problem solving; communicating outwardly; listening and interpreting, establishing rapport, understanding needs; developing solutions and agreeing things with people; capable of financial understanding and commercial ability; speaking and presenting to groups; helping or coaching or teaching or training others; using information and communications technology; appreciative of technical advancements and use of equipment/tools/machinery for their area and related areas; developing relationships with people and groups; aware of their competitors and industry and consider these facts in planning, decision making, etc.; taking initiative and responsibility; visioning, creating and inspiring others with their ideas; managing time, planning, being effective, efficient, productive and reliable; and appreciating/applying social responsibility, sustainability, humanity and ethical considerations.

Objective in Conducting TNA

Interventions on Skills Mismatch

Determination of Skill Matches

Organisation analysis

Task analysis

Individual analysis

Action taken by HR manager if skills of incumbent manager mismatch the job requirement

TNA usage in the organization

Barriers in achieving these objectives

TNA Practices in Saudi Arabia Private Sectors Firms

Figure ____. Conceptual Framework.

The second component of the framework is a determination of the skills match of the incumbent and those required by the job. The questionnaire aims to determine how this is done, by assessing the companies' process of organizational, task, and person analysis: The following are the items that fall under each component of TNA analysis:

Organisational Analysis: The relationship between the organizational and its external environment so as to determine the links between external variables and the needs for training and development; How effective the organisation and its various sub-units are in researching the objectives they set out to achieve; The organization's human resources, to assess current and long-term training and development requirements.; The organization's internal environment, to identify those problem areas that can be tackled by means of training and development, and those which could potentially constitute unusually strong resistance to change; The relationship between the organizational and its external environment so as to determine the links between external variables and the needs for training and development.

Task Analysis: Any problem faced by job holders in learning the basic skills and applying them successfully; Any weaknesses in the performance of existing job holders arising from gaps in knowledge, lack of skill or poor motivation which need to be certified by training; Any areas where competence levels are clearly not up to the standards required; Any areas where future changed in work processes, methods or job responsibilities indicates a learning need; and How training is carried out at present -- and how effective it is.

Person Analysis: Directly observing job performance; Reviewing supervisory evaluations of performance; Using diagnostic tests, such as written ability tests and work samples; Comparing the behaviors of well -- performing employees with those of poorly performing employees; Discussing with employees their individual job performance and factors that may inhibit that performance.

The third component of the conceptual framework intends to determine the initiatives that are conducted by private sector firms to make sure that training gaps are addressed as soon as possible. The following issues/practices shall be assessed in this portion: whether the training is conducted based on the appraisal of the employees; the training focuses on the managers' acquisition of skills needed in order to ensure they are fulfilling the duties required of their positions; Human resources managers plan the training; the training was developed in such a way that it conforms with the goals of the organization; and the training program is aimed towards the managers' acquisition of leadership skills.

To close the loop, the last component of the conceptual framework is barriers in achieving the first three components. The following are the items that fall under each component of TNA analysis: training satisfaction; learning achieved through training; self-efficiency after training; performance after training; motivation after training; support (before during and after training) from top management; Positive employee attitude; commitment from the trainees; Establishing training standards and benchmarks; Highly skilled questioning techniques; Tedious procedures; taking TNA as a holistic process; establishing a clear link between firm objectives and training; taking into account the needs of the individuals in the firm; awareness of the TNA process, rationale, and mechanism during decision making; acquiring data that is clear, precise, accurate, relevant and complete; taking into account the opinion and suggestions given by the workforce; increasing transparency and democracy; Market-led training needs analysis; focusing on mastery of self; focusing on bargaining jobs and priorities; focusing on interpersonal relationships management; and lastly focusing on cross-functional collaboration and focusing on project management competencies.

Through the use of the conceptual framework defined above, this study aims to accomplish the following:

1) To determine the objectives in conducting training needs analysis in Saudi Arabian manufacturing firms;

2) To ascertain how these firms determine the skills of those in managerial positions match those of job requirements; and;

3) To determine the actions undertaken by human resource managers in the event that the incumbent managers do not possess the skills required of them by their job descriptions. Combining these together, the researcher shall then be able to determine the process of training needs analysis of manufacturing firms in Saudi Arabia.

4) In doing this explore any barriers the firm encounter in achieving the above (the 3 objective).

3.2 Barriers to effective Training Needs Assessment

Scholars of human resource develop and identify strategies for human resource that revolves around employee training as the kind of interventions that have an impact on the performance of individuals in their attempt to develop and put into practice the strategic needs of the organization (Huselid et al., 1997; Deery et 1994; Guest, 1987; Iles et al., 1990; Meyer and Allen, 1997). One of the main factors that have been identified as being critical for affecting organizational performance in the context of human resource management is training (Bartel, 1994).

Studies have shown that many of the entities do not make an effort of gathering relevant information about the implications and benefits of carrying out training programs in the organization (Goldstein, 1993). Therefore, much of the training interventions goes unnoticed and does not get appropriately analyzed except for the high opinion, the trained officials may hold for the training itself. For instance, a study by Phillips revealed that the most usual types of evaluation done revolves around gauging the reactions of trainee that are recorded when the training ends. Comparatively, only a few organizations attempt to evaluate the utility of trainings either before or after the training is acquired by the employees. This implies that even though several companies are spending a considerable amount of time, energy and money into getting their employees trained, only few are successful in correctly evaluating the implications and utility of training acquired before or during training.

The reasons for this behaviour in organizations can be argued about. Many scholars are of the opinion that one of the main obstacles to implementing successful evaluation measures for training needs is the complexity in identifying what to evaluate and what measures of effectiveness should be used. Sometimes, this problem can arise because of the ineptness and incompetence of the training directors who are not aware of the appropriate evaluation procedure as they be may be mere direct line managers and not sufficiently trained themselves of handling and addressing such issues, as Grove and Ostroff (1990) highlights.

Even more so, Grove and Ostroff state that there are only limited options available in terms of good literature on the topic of evaluating the outcomes of training programs or to the methodology of conducting such evaluations. While several of evaluation procedures may have been recorded, hardly any evidence citing the benefits of them are available that fails to provide conclusive suggestions about which procedures to use, making it difficult for the organizations to make decisions. Thus, it is not surprising that most of the organization simply chose to ignore this aspect of the training programs or try to implement their own procedures of evaluating which may not be the most feasible ones available in the circumstances.

3.3 Need for recognizing barriers to effective training

It is widely believed that evaluating training programs can be time consuming, costly and risky. Apprehension also exists about evaluations as organizations fear that a program that is highly acclaimed by the public may turn out to be ineffective when evaluated appropriately. This outlook is actually a misconception about the overall objective of evaluation which is to offer an understanding of the utility of the training and to assist in bettering such programs so that they are more aligned to the overall design and strategy of the organization instead of just passing a decision on the effectiveness of the programs.

As has been mentioned earlier, Phillips, Grove and Ostroff highlighted the importance of carrying out evaluations of training programs, before they commence, as they have considerable advantages for the organization. One of the foremost examples of the benefits of evaluating training is that they assist in revamping the training programs so they are better suited to meet the objectives and goals of the organization and as a result become more comprehensive. Therefore, the results of such evaluations can provide an insight into the dynamics of such training programs and how revising them would better help the organization in attaining its goals.

If training needs assessments are done appropriately, it can also help bring to light the usefulness of the training program themselves. This kind of understanding is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of such programs against their financial cost and can also assist the organization in making fund-allocation decisions. For instance, if a training program is revealed to be meeting its objectives and adding value to the organization in some considerable way, its financial costs will be deemed to be covered and worth the benefits and the organization will have no qualms about allocating more funds for such types of trainings.

Evaluating training programs effectively can also have a positive effect on the legal aspect of an organization. For instance, if both men and women are exposed to equal training opportunities, an organization might save itself some costly lawsuits that contest against discrimination. Sometimes, when the training is more suited to a specific gender, evaluations can help support those claims and can also reduce the likelihood of attracting lawsuits this way as well.

Some of the gains acquired by evaluating training programs include the positive effect on decision making. When evaluation is carried out, the organization is better able to measure the performance and utility of training programs and is thus informed enough to make relevant decisions. It can also help the organization figure out alternatives to the current training programs and the potential participants of such programs. Evaluations can sometimes depict the kind of employees the training programs might be more useful for and can thus assist the organization in deciding the participants thus way, thereby also increasing the effectiveness of training as it is targeted at the right audience.

Even more so, evaluations can be used to test for clearness and authenticity of tests, questionnaires and practical exercises carried out. They can also gauge the magnitude of skills and knowledge the programs have been developed to impart. Evaluations can also emphasize on the points highlighted in the training. It also serves as a benchmark for the participants to know what they should have learnt from the training programs and their current implementing of the training initiatives.

As per Brinkerhoff (1988), an effective evaluation of the training program must be able to identify that the training

• Is directed at significant and valuable organizational gains

• Functions soundly, efficiently and is valued by the trainees

• Is able to attain significant skills, knowledge and attitude aims

• Utilizes the most suitable design available

• Is rightly designed and effective for the related job and • Offers considerable benefits to the organization

3.4 How to minimize barriers in the assessment of effective training needs and development of hypotheses

However, the question arises as to what should be evaluated and is an important consideration while coming up with the evaluation strategy. A reassessment of the most widely used procedures by the U.S. companies to analyze the training programs depicted that more than 50% utilize information about the level of satisfaction of the trainees as one of the main methods of evaluating. Around 17% of the organizations evaluate the applications and compare them with the related job while less than 15% assess the organizational changes during the training (Chew and Chan, 2008). Most of the evaluation procedures of the training concentrate on eight benchmarks: Reaction to the training, learning occurred, Actual Change in Performance, Outcomes, Motivation to Learn, Perceived Support, Training Attitudes and Affective Commitment. All these variables are discussed in the following paragraphs:

Reactions to the training

As it has been highlighted before, more than fifty per cent of the entities taken in the survey carried out by Phillips assessed their training programs by evaluating and analyse the level of satisfaction the trainees attained by acquiring the training. This is, indeed one of the major factors if the continuation of programs is to be judged. Even then, many of the studies recommend that corporate entities depending upon these procedures may be taken off the track (Gold et al., 2003).

As per Goldstein (1993), while many of the trainers are of the opinion that the receptivity of the trainee in the beginning offers an enhanced environment that facilitates learning of the trainees through the offered material in the course but even then this does not assure that learning takes place at a higher level. It is very likely that the trainees acquire high satisfaction level through the training but not present the performance that was actually the desired aim of the instruction because as Tannenbaum and Yuki (1991) comment that enjoying a particular course does not automatically mean that the trainees are acquiring knowledge from it.

This is depicted in a case scenario by Campion and Campion (1987) that was centred on interview training. The outcomes of the training program when assessed showed that the trainees all developed favourable opinions of the program and also regurgitated all the learnt material in the final exam. Despite that, the trainees were not able to display the performance that was expected of them after the training.

In light of the aforementioned facts, our first hypothesis for this study is as follows:

Hypothesis:

H1: Higher satisfaction levels have an effect on barriers regarding training.

Null Hypothesis:

H1: Higher satisfaction levels have no effect on barriers regarding training.

Learning

As per Campbell (1988), one of the major underlying principles of evaluation of barriers regarding training revolves around the consideration whether the participants of the training have become familiar with the material taught during the program. Even more so, Ford et al. highlighted that many of the researches carried out on the effectiveness of training have gauged the magnitude of learning that has happened after each training program rather than the performance or behavioural improvements of employees on the job. The findings of this research will analyse the connection between learning and barriers to effective training. In light of the aforementioned facts, our second hypothesis for this study is as follows:

Hypothesis:

H2: Higher learning levels have an effect on barriers regarding training.

Null Hypothesis:

H2: Higher learning levels have no effect on barriers regarding training.

Behaviour

Just like the way a positive response to the program does not always assure real learning by the employee, acquiring training does not also imply the respective improvement in behaviour in on-the-job performance. A number of studies have concluded that attention needs to be laid on the performance of the job after the training rather than the learning. Transfer of training is a concept that is identified to be the level of implementation the participants agree to apply during the job after acquiring the relevant sets of skills and knowledge from the training program (Ambler, 2002).

For transfer of training to happen, the performance levels acquiring from the training must be sustained during the job over a certain time period. As per Georgenson hardly 10% of the amount spent on imparting training practically manages to get the skills transferred on the actual job. Many other scholars have carried out such types of studies which have been conclusive about the fact that most of the materials learnt and taught during training does not get rolled over the actual job performance of employees in the organization (Ambler, 2002).

Assessing the level of skills and knowledge transferred to the job from training necessitates the evaluation of performance and behaviour on the job. This activity revolves carrying out complicated assessments, for instance tests of performance, inspection etc. which can have an effect on the organization by increasing its financial costs. An alternate way of calculating performance would make this procedure easier and maybe less costly to carry out. There is huge amount of texts and reading material available on the topic of self-effectiveness that could be one of the alternative methods of assessing performance (Ambler, 2002). Self-efficacy can be defined as the notion that one can behave effectively so that the desired performance can be achieved on the job and it is commented by Bandura (1980) that one or more than one of the following should be fostered:

• Expertise

• Experience

• Communication and Persuasion

• Motivation

These measures play an important role in the training procedure. However, expertise or mastery which is defined as repeatedly achieving a certain set of performance has