Conditions and rise of totalitarian governments in twentieth-century Europe

Totalitarian Governments

Although no exact definition of "totalitarianism" exists, it generally refers to an extreme form of authoritarian government in the modern times. Totalitarian governments are different from the 'classical' dictatorships that have existed and have been described by philosophers and intellectuals since the time of Plato and Aristotle. In fact many historians consider totalitarianism to be a uniquely 20th century phenomenon that gained ascendancy during the period between the two World Wars. In modern totalitarian governments, the state intrudes into all facets of society, including the daily life of its citizens by seeking to control the economics, politics, values, and beliefs of its population to an extent that the distinction between state and society is erased. The conditions that contribute to the evolution of totalitarian governments are hard to pin-point but the history of the 20th century and the prevalent socio-economic conditions in the countries where such regimes took hold in the wake of World War I provide us with some clue. This paper examines the conditions that contribute to the evolution of such governments and the variables that distinguish totalitarianism from other forms of government. It also identifies and discusses specific totalitarian countries that provide case studies of the rise of totalitarianism.

Conditions that Lead to Totalitarianism

There is no single cause that leads to totalitarianism although its theoretical roots have been traced to the political theories of Plato, Hobbes, Rousseau and Marx at different times. Some theorists have even suggested that the rapidity, with which totalitarian governments have arisen in modern times, indicates that "there is something in human nature to which they correspond and on which they draw for their moral energy." (Scruton 1998) That "something," according to Scruton is an overwhelming sense of 'resentment' among the people which is exploited and stoked by a group of people (usually the elite) to embark on the path of a totalitarian government.

More often, totalitarianism is the result of a number of historical forces that happen to come together at a single point in time. The post-World War I period in Europe was one such time. The War had caused untold destruction in the countries where it was fought and the reparations imposed on Germany by the victorious Allied powers as well as the one-side Versailles Treaty further exacerbated the situation. All these factors led to severe social, political and economic crises in Europe. When the liberal democratic governments in most of the European countries failed to effectively tackle the severe economic and social problems such as the Great Depression of the 1930s, the concept of alternate forms of government started to attract a receptive audience. Russia was plunged into the October 1917 Bolshevik revolution even before the war had ended. Others such as Italy and Germany were soon to follow a different path on the road to totalitarianism.

There is, of course, some controversy about whether Marxism, on which the Russian Revolution was based, professes totalitarianism. Most Marxist writers insist that in the totalitarian state of the left "force is used only in order to quicken the pace of man's progress to perfection and social harmony." (Talmon 1960) Unlike the totalitarian state of the right which assumes human nature as weak and corrupt and justifies the use of force as necessary to control the unruly masses. Karl Marx's concept of a truly Communist system also envisioned the ultimate formation of a utopian state in which no government existed. The catch, however, was that the Soviet Communism never reached that 'ultimate' stage. What the initial phase of communism in Russia -- the so-called 'dictatorship of the Proletariat' degenerated into was Stalinism; and Stalinism was nothing more than the worst kind of totalitarianism.

While the Communist ideology may be somewhat ambivalent about the concept of totalitarianism, the other leading authoritarian political philosophies of the time, i.e., fascism and National Socialism (Nazism) were not: they openly professed a totalitarian system of government; scorned at the 'sloppy' liberalism of democracy and the considered Bolshevism as the greatest 'scourge' known to mankind.

Hence the conditions that lead to totalitarianism are likely to resemble the socio-economic conditions that existed in Europe after the end of the First World War -- widespread chaos, social, political and economic crises along with a belief that the existing social and political structure was unworkable. In such an environment, it is easy for people to feel deep resentment towards real or imaginary enemies and to find scapegoats for the unsatisfactory conditions. Yearning for a strong leader who would lead the nation out of its predicament and extreme patriotism often accompanies such feelings, resulting in popular support for the setting up of a totalitarian regime.

Several contemporary thinkers and writers have written about the modern phenomenon of totalitarianism, prominent among them were George Orwell and Hannah Arendt. Both the writers drew parallels between the Soviet Communist regime and the fascist governments in Germany and Italy. Arendt in particular has dwelt on the conditions that lead to totalitarianism in her monumental "Origins of Totalitarianism" (1951), relating the development of totalitarianism to 19th-century anti-Semitism and imperialism and seeing its growth as the outcome of the disintegration of the traditional nation-state. (Arendt 1966) Orwell, on the other hand, was fearful that the specter of totalitarianism would come to dominate the whole world and most of writings reflect that fear.

Case Studies: Specific Examples of Totalitarian Regimes

The Soviet Communist regime under Joseph Stalin, the fascist regime under Mussolini in Italy and Nazi regime led by Adolf Hitler are typical examples of totalitarian regimes.

Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin: As observed earlier, it is debatable whether Karl Marx had clearly envisaged the formation of totalitarian governments by the application of his Communist theory. However, the first country to adopt Communism, i.e., the Soviet Union soon degenerated into the worst type of totalitarian government imaginable under Joseph Stalin who ruled the country from 1929 to 1953 with an iron hand. Stalin's regime, typical of totalitarian governments, constantly identified a goal and before it was reached, announced a new one. This was done through the announcement of a series of Five-Year Plans -- the object being to keep the people mobilized in a state of "permanent revolution." (Kreis 2004) Stalin implemented the blueprint of a totalitarian regime ruthlessly. He issued a "party line" and anyone who, in his sole opinion, deviated from the line was terrorized through the use of his secret police -- either sent into exile or executed. In the beginning, the major target of the Stalinist pogroms were the kulaks (wealthy peasants) but later on, no including Communist party members, administrators or the ordinary people were exempt. Only the "great leader" -- Stalin himself was answerable to no one. Between 1935 and 1939 a great purge was carried out in which countless party members, former comrades of Stalin himself were put on public trials, confessions extracted from them and promptly executed. People were condemned to death or sent to the Gulag for 'crimes' as trivial as not clapping long enough after a speech by Stalin. The result was that by 1938 at least one million people were in prison, some 8.5 million had been arrested and sent to the Gulag and nearly 800,000 had been executed. (Ibid.) at the same time, a personality cult was built up around Stalin through the ubiquitous depiction of his portraits, statues, books, films and quotations, constantly reminding the people about the achievements of their 'beloved' leader.

The Fascist Regime of Mussolini: Possibly the first person to use the word "totalitarianism" was the Italian Fascist leader, Benito Mussolini who came to power in 1922 and later establishing a one-party dictatorship. The crux of the fascist doctrine and the totalitarian state is encapsulated in Mussolini's well-known phrase, "all within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state." The fascist ideology is now believed by political scientists to be based on anticonservatism, a myth of ethnic or national renewal, and a conception of a nation in crisis. Mussolini, however, was ideologically shallow and supremely opportunistic. Once asked to define Fascism, he is said to have responded: "I am Fascism." (Blum, 1998) the rise of fascism in Italy was also the result of a fear of Bolshevism that had taken hold in Russia following the World War I and was threatening to spread to the rest of Europe, as well as an adverse reaction to the apparent failure of the laissez faire economics. Mussolini, after getting into power, soon set about establishing a totalitarian state by abolishing all political parties except his own, muzzling the press and establishing a special police force to curb all opposition. He presented himself as an inspired Duce (Leader) sent by providence to retain the past glories of Italy. Mass organizations were created to regiment and mobilize the people. Mussolini was successful in restoring the country's economy and pride over the next few years until, like all totalitarian regimes over-reached himself by embarking on the path of militarism and allying with Hitler.

The Nazi Regime in Germany: The Nazi regime that came to power in Germany under Hitler in 1933 is perhaps the worst example of a totalitarian government. The Nazi ideology had all the ingredients that typify totalitarianism and more. Hitler had outlined the philosophy in his book Mein Kempf much before coming to power-- German racial superiority, virulent anti-Semitism, the concept of "Lebensraum," (living space), pan-Germanism and the necessity of another war. After maneuvering himself into power, when he was invited to become the Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler set about implementing his plan for establishing a ruthless dictatorship. The Nazis burnt down the parliament building themselves and blamed the Communists for it. Using the incident as an excuse, Hitler convinced the then President to declare emergency, abolished the freedom of speech and banned all political parties except the Nazi Party to make Germany a one-Party state. What followed is too well-known to be recounted again, but Hitler's regime is a classic case-study into the working of a totalitarian government.