Human Trafficking: An Ethnographic Study Opening Statement

Human Trafficking: An Ethnographic Study

Opening Statement

Human trafficking is not a problem that only affects developing nations. Every nation and region of the globe is plighted by the problem of human trafficking, including the world's wealthiest countries. In fact, it is often the wealthy nations that provide the lucrative market that drives human trafficking to begin with. "Human trafficking represents perhaps the worst form of labor exploitation and can be regarded as one of the dark sides of globalization," (Loring, Engstrom, Hilliard, & Diaz 2007:1). This may be true, but human trafficking is a practice much older than the modern incarnation of a globalized economy.

The focus of this study is on adult human trafficking, a much-overlooked dimension of the problem. Human trafficking also affects both men and women, and this study takes into account gender roles and norms, and the different market needs for trafficked human beings. Treating human trafficking as a business, which it is, allows for a richer understanding of the problem. This research uses a qualitative method known as ethnography, to study the cultural contexts in which human trafficking takes place both at the source or supply, and at the end or demand-side of the equation. The importance of this research cannot be underestimated, as it is a revolutionary and radical approach to a problem that impacts all persons on the planet.

Background

Although the extent of human trafficking is fairly well-known, actual information on the reality of human trafficking from its victims is sparse due to the secrecy of the illegal activity. There is an "estimated 2.5 million people at any given time" being exploited through human trafficking (5). Many of the victims of human trafficking are children. It is important to note that the definition of a child differs from culture to culture. There are many different cultures that establish the different age limits for adulthood. According to the United Nations and the United States, an adult is considered to be anyone eighteen years of age or older, and for the purpose of this study we will follow this guideline (7). Interestingly, United Nations estimates that the majority of all human trafficking victims are adults (2,-page 10).

The most pronounced stereotype of human trafficking victims is "innocent young girls from foreign countries" who are coerced into sexual exploitation (9,-page 1). Although many victims of human trafficking are young girls, this stereotype detracts from the reality that human trafficking impacts a diverse population. There are many other victims of human trafficking, although young girls have been classical pray for trafficking rings. Human trafficking includes, but is not limited to, a multitude of aspects such as forced labor camps, sexual exploitation, all of which comprise modern-day slavery (1).

The United States Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) of 2000 defines sex trafficking as "sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained eighteen years of age; or & #8230; the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt, bondage, or slavery" (9,-page 1). There has been a lot of research on the different aspects of human trafficking (1; 2; 4; 5). The empirical data does not seem to support the major stereotype previously stated.

The United Nation's Office on Drugs and Crime has conducted a study in 2012 showing that most victims of the human trafficking business are adults compared to children (2,-page 10). This study correlates with the empirical data provided by The National Center for Victims of Crime (4) and the Polaris Project (1). Human trafficking has been studied by multiple organizations including the United Nations and the United States (2, 4). It has been linked to everything from poverty and addiction to monetary profits for criminal organizations (1, 2). The United Nations has used graphical representations to show the percent differences of human trafficking usage, for example sexual exploitation or forced labor, in multiple countries around the world (2, 5). These graphical representations show previous data that has been collected by individual countries and then compiled into one larger study.

The United States estimates that most victims of human trafficking are hard pressed to come forward with information regarding their status (12). The dependency victims have with their captor factors into inconsistent data among this topic. Although some data shows there are approximately 27 million victims globally, this number is most likely much greater (1). This lack of exactness and the growing profitability of the action, give reason to conduct a study that determines differences between genders of adults in human trafficking in order to combat this criminal activity.

Human trafficking has been prevalent since prehistoric times (9,-page 9; 10). Since the early nineteenth century there has been progress to abolish different levels of human trafficking from civilization such as abolishing slavery, the creation of the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the TVPA (10). Outlawing human trafficking has caused data on the subject matter to become increasingly difficult to obtain. This has made it harder to research the effects of trafficking rates by gender among adults. The United Nations states that an exact figure is "unachievable" (Loring, Engstrom, Hilliard, & Diaz 2007:1).

There are clearly gaps and deficiencies in prior research, which has focused perhaps narrowly on sex trafficking. This study attempts to show that human trafficking affects adults as well as children, to help dispel the myths and stereotypes about human trafficking. The research should be pursued and conducted by well-funded humanitarian organizations to prevent human trafficking at all costs. Everyone is affected by human trafficking.

Problem Statement

Increased understanding of the phenomenon of adult human trafficking is necessary. This research addresses this key gap in literature. It is especially important to study the gender gap in adult victims. The relationship between estimated human trafficking rates for various genders among adults have been conducted by various sources (1; 2; 4; 5).

While the United Nations has conducted research on global human trafficking, it did not examine the difference in human trafficking rates between different genders for adults (2). This lack of attention to a key variable in research prevents countries from appropriating funds correctly to combat this illegal business. This study will help fill in the deficiencies of previous studies to establish the differences of human trafficking rates by gender among adults.

Purpose Statement: Quantitative Research

The focus of this study is to expound upon previous studies on human trafficking (2; 4; 5; 10). The purpose of a quantitative research study would be to determine the differences of human trafficking by gender in adults. The independent variable of this study will be the gender status and the dependent variable will be the human trafficking rates. The study of the differences in human trafficking rates by gender will be examined by determining the differences in human trafficking rates of male adults and female adults across different ethnic or national cohorts. The conclusion of the study will determine if there are differences in human trafficking rates between genders. If the analysis rejects the null hypothesis, then a post hoc analysis will be used to determine where differences exist.

Research Hypothesis

Ho: µ1 = µ2

There is no difference in human trafficking rates between male adults and female adults.

H1: µ1 ? µ2

There are differences in human trafficking rates between male adults and female adults.

Purpose Statement: Qualitative Research

In addition to quantitative research, which is important, qualitative research is also necessary to provide the experiential case studies that can help humanitarian organizations understand how to communicate with victims, their families, and even perpetrators. Therefore, an ethnographic method provides the ideal qualitative research framework to approach the subject of adult victims of human trafficking. An ethnography will allow the researcher to understand the global context of the problem, including the cultural domain, social norms, gender roles, and other variables that come into play when analyzing the subject.

The intent of the study is to understand the factors that make human trafficking more possible in some cultures, and which also impact the differences in patterns between the trafficking of men and women. As an ethnography, the study will describe one culture or community in depth, explore the attitudes and other variables, and develop a cogent set of solutions. As the central phenomenon of the study is adult human trafficking, defined by any deceptive means of forcibly moving adult human beings from their homes. This means that some adults unwittingly go with their captors under the assumption that they will be finding work or other legitimate avenues of income or opportunity. What the adults do not know is that they are being illegally trafficked and will be held captive as modern-day slaves. The ethnography will study both source and end-user markets.

Research Question

The central question is related to what factors and variables give rise to a human trafficking market, both at the source and at the end of the supply chain. Subquestions include why men vs. women are trafficked in some situations vs. others; and why some cultures are more prone to being source cultures, and others more prone to being destination cultures. Finally, is poverty the primary sociological factor that gives rise to human trafficking? What social norms are at play that make it possible for human trafficking to take place? Finally, the research question ultimately seeks a solution to the problem.

Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

The theoretical and conceptual frameworks for this research are sociological in nature. Rational choice and demand theory are two of the most important and applicable theories in this ethnography of human trafficking. In addition to rational choice and demand theory, conflict theory will also be integrated into the research. Rational choice theory is a criminological theory that suggests that crimes take place in atmospheres in which opportunity presents itself, with an absence or minimal risk of being caught. In other words, rational choice theory is a cost-benefits analysis of committing an unethical or criminal behavior. A human trafficking cartel does, it is postulated, operate within a rational framework. The money gained from human trafficking is believed to outweigh the potential risks involved. Moreover, the perpetrators will often rationalize their choice to participate in trafficking by claiming that the victims trusted them, and it is the responsibility of the adult victims to be in control of their own lives. Likewise, the perpetrators might truly believe that they are doing the victim(s) a favor by extricating them from a poor village, abusive marriage, or other situation. Rational choice theory can also apply to the victims, and a victimology approach is helpful to seeing which individuals are more prone to being victimized and why. An ethnography is an ideal method because of the way it examines cultural values, roles, norms, and other sociological variables.

Demand theory is an economic theory, which can be easily applied to the phenomenon of adult human trafficking. This theory suggests that human trafficking occurs because there is demand on the market for adult slaves. Whether the demand is for cheap labor, free labor, or sex labor remains to be seen, and will be covered during the ethnography of this research. Using demand theory, the researchers will be able to treat human trafficking as any other business enterprise. The perpetrators are providing a service because there is a demand. In this case, the researcher will need to evaluate the purchasing or end-user culture with as much scrutiny as the source culture. Rather than only blaming the source cultures for the problem of human trafficking, it is important also to point fingers at the end user.

Finally, conflict theory is a classic sociological theory that addresses social injustice and inequities. Conflict theory is based on unequal distribution of wealth in any given society. It is related to strain theory in that when there is unequal distribution of wealth, the poor members of the society feel acute strain, making them prone to breaking the law in order to earn money. Conflict theory suggests that the poor members of the society will remain in conflict with the owners of the means of production in that society and that crime will continue to take place unless a more equitable economic policy can be instated.

Nature of the Study

The design of this study, as an ethnography, will combine various methods as the researcher fulfills the role of observer and interviewer. It is not truly possible to be a participant-observer for this ethnography. Instead, observation and interviewing will be the primary means by which to gather evidence.

Observations will take place in two distinct settings: in the source culture and also in the receiving or end-user culture. On-site observation will ideally include living in a community with a high rate of adult human trafficking for both genders. Then, I will be able to observe the phenomenon in one culture, which would eliminate potential validity problems. If it proves impossible to find one culture or community with both male and female human trafficking victims, then I will observe two different cultures to compare the male and female victim experiences, as well as the cultural and normative precursors to human trafficking.

The receiving culture will present the same methodological conundrum. If there is a receiving culture with a black or gray market purchasing both male and female slaves, then I can observer only this culture and reduce the potential for internal validity issues. If not, then the researcher will need to attend to two different marketplaces to determine differences between male and female adult slaves.

The observation will be complex, and take place over the course of several months. The researcher will live incognito in the community, and will tell the residents of the community that the research is related to something else entirely, such as water quality. This way, there will be less suspicion that the researcher is observing an illegal practice. This might encourage perpetrators to open up in the interview portion of the methodology, and will certainly make it easier to interview the potential targets of human trafficking.

The interview section of the methodology will involve selecting at least one male and at least one female member from each source community to discuss the relevant issues related to human trafficking. Questions will be related to everything from have they known someone who was taken from them; do they know the extent of the problem; why do they think human trafficking takes place; how they feel about it; whether they believe it impacts men and women; and what they feel can and should be done about the problem.

There are many limitations to this research design, which could present weaknesses in the data. For one, I am including many different variables such as gender and ethnicity, as well as nationality. I am also working with several different theoretical frameworks including an economic theory and a criminological theory. The qualitative design has inherent flaws in that biases and researcher intervention can be problematic. I need to refrain from asking leading questions in my interviews, and projecting my own cultural biases on my observations.

However, I believe that these are necessary complexities in the research. It is impossible to study a topic as complicated as human trafficking of adults using simple methods. The more complex the theoretical framework and the more ambitious the research design, the more potentially useful and rich the data set will be in the future. In fact, I intend to combine this qualitative research with the quantitative method mentioned earlier.