Trait theories in psychology and personality assessment

Trait Theories Overview

There are several theories that surround the human personality, the way that humans react, learn, and interact with the world. Among those psychological and sociological theories, trait theory is interested in the manner in which traits -- or habitual patterns of behavior, thought and emotion, remain stable over time and influence the behavior of the individual. Trait theory has often been used to explain leadership or deviance and tends to assume that the basic tenets of personality remain the same throughout one's lifetime. Some of the early trait theorists who have shaped the field were Gordon Allport, an early academic who believed that central traits were the basic core of an individual's personality. This view was quite prominent up until the mid-1960s, when many, Hans Eyseneck for one, tended to group individuals more in either a three or five-factor model, allowing for individual differences (Sigelman and Rider, 2009).

Trait theorists tend to see the human personality based on a five-factor model -- five major dimensions of personality. These are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. Based on a scale, then, one's personality is structured depending on the degree one exhibits these characteristics. For instance:

Structure

Definition

Characteristics

Openness to experience

Curiosity, desire to try new things vs. preference for routine

Openness to feelings, actions, ideas, fantasy, values, change

Conscientiousness

Organization and a disciplined approach vs. lack of focus

Competence, order in things, striving for achievement, self-discipline

Extraversion

Outgoing vs. introversion

Warmth, degree of gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, positive and optimistic

Agreeableness

Compliance and cooperation vs. suspicion

Trust, altruism, modesty, being tender

Neuroticism

Emotional instability vs. stability

Anxiety, hostility, depression, vulnerability, impulsiveness

(Daft and Lane, 2008, p.98).

Of course, there are far more psychological traits that make up personalities, and trait theory tends to look at a number of ways that traits "output" into society: leadership, consumer behavior, relationship issues, 'fit' for certain careers, etc. Trait theory helps us understand the way that individuals may react in different situations, but must be used within a number of contextual examples since individuals vary so much in the way they approach situations. For instance, we might say that a frugal person might be more attracted to product A, in general, but within the universe of frugality; there are a number of dimensions and approaches to attitudes about products or services. For the marketing world, then, trait theory is useful to generalize demographics or psychographics, but must be taken as a general theme (Dholakia, 1978)

Because there are so many divergent ways that trait theory can be interpreted, the three-factor model tends to offer a more usable approach for psychology, sociology, anthropology, and even historical analysis. One view suggests that different personality traits are caused by certain biochemical and physical parts of the human brain -- the result of genetic factors and influences. This model focuses on the reticular and limbic systems of the brain as the major components that form and mediate emotional and intellectual response. For instance, this theory holds that extraverts have low levels of cortical arousal and introverts high leaves, meaning extraverts need more stimulation for socializing and being outgoing, while introverts receive enough stimulation from their own physical make up. Since each person has differing levels of brain chemicals, there are thousands and thousands of factors that can be combined to make up unique personality dimensions. This view is more biochemical in nature, and believes that expression of traits will emerge regardless of the nurture factor (Eysenck, 2008).

Trait theory has a number of positives and negatives. It takes the general theme of the personality and breaks down certain factors that seem to retain vibrancy throughout the individual's life, at least when compared to larger groups. However, it also assumes that people remain rather stagnant as they age, and do not change in terms of their basic personality. It is likely, according to modern though, that education and environment play a strong role in the adaptation of views, trends, and belief systems. These changes as individual's age and grow intellectually can mollify, enhance, or even develop new expressed personality traits (Trait Approach, 2010).