Treatment of Written Error Correction

Treatment of Written Error Correction by ESOL Teachers

This study will focus on highlight the treatment of written error correction by ESOL teachers at a college in East London for all elementary (beginner), intermediate and advance level of students that are studying under the ESL program and curriculum being implemented at the college. The study will be divided into four different chapters, each focusing on a different aspect of the study. The first chapter, 'Introduction' will give a brief opening to the paper highlighting the statement of the problem and the purpose of the study. Chapter 2 will be the 'Literature Review' where we will use all the prior studies conducted in the field as a spectrum of reference to highlight the importance of the topic and the impact that various error treatments have on the understanding capabilities of the students as well as how they react to the different format of the treatment techniques used by teachers at the different levels. Here, we will also explain the terminologies that will be used in the paper as well as point out some of the common negative impacts that different types of treatments can have on the teachers and students. Some of the correction codes and taxonomies that are regularly used by teachers will also be lined in this section. Chapter 3 will consist of the 'Methodology' where we will include the research questions, written sample selections of corrected material, research methods and tools that will be used to conduct the study. This section will also include the classification of errors and a data analyses section. Chapter 4 will highlight the results, conclusion and interpretations made from the data collected and will highlight the interview analyses made with specific attention given to the impact that some explicit treatment techniques have on the students.

Chapter 1: Introduction

This study will aim to analyze the significance of the teacher's corrections and guidance within the dynamics of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). The study will highlight the impact that different corrective measures have on student performances and will simultaneously highlight some of the common mistakes that SLA students make when learning English generally or for academic purposes.

Statement of the problem

The mistakes and errors that students make, especially within the SLA dynamic, are usually perceived and handled very negatively which makes the entire process a lot more discouraging and difficult for the SLA students. There is a dire change needed in the attitude and corrective measures used towards the mistakes made by SLA students in order to ensure that the results attained in the form of student performances are superior and durable.

Purpose of the study

The present study will analyze the methods and procedures that ESL/SLA teachers use as corrective measures when tackling a variety of mistakes made by SLA students. This study will take place at a College in East London and assess the mistakes and corrective measures used for students at different level sie. beginner, intermediate and advanced. The study will aim to highlight the common errors and common corrective measures as well as highlight the association or link between all relative literature on the use of corrective measures and their practical implementation.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 2, the literature review, will mainly deal with identifying and explaining prior studies that have been conducted on the correction of mistakes made in written English when it is taught as a second language. All of the studies used in this section will be aimed to give an abstract for the theoretical setup for this study as well as give an overview of some of the terminologies used in correction techniques.

Meaning of Terminologies

The concept of the correction of errors has been a popular domain of research and the two most common terminologies used in such studies include 'error' and 'error treatment'. These two terms are very much understood by many in a lay man stature, however, their contextual use in communication is quite vague and both these terms have been explained in numerous ways. Since this study is dependent upon the exact definition of both these terms, it becomes even more important to clearly understand them first.

To define error, Cobuild explains that error is basically a mistake (Cobuild, 1997). Simply categorizing error as a mistake does not satisfy the science behind its use within the dynamics of the English language. Ellis tries to encompass the scientology of the word by explaining that error was merely a digression from the established standards of the English language (Ellis, 1994, pg. 94-95). This definition too is open for interpretation because of the wide context in which the established standards can be used. For this study, we are focusing on the correction of written errors and hence will not be concerned with the causes of the errors. Keeping this fat in mind, error within the context of this study can be defined as recognizable or visible errors made by the learner that digressed from the universal standards of written English as well as all the structures of the learner's English that are believed to be improper or out of place by the tutor.

Since the terms 'error treatment' and 'error correction' are not clearly defined as separate entities, they will be used synonymously in this study too. Defining error treatment, Chaudron (1986, pg. 64-84) explains that it is a process whereby the tutor alters the use and/or attitude of a student towards written English by articulating their displeasure or by insisting on precise changes. Hammerly (1991, pg. 120-208) and Plumb et al. (1994, pg. 347-360) in their studies have used the term error correction as the tutor's exercise to deal with written errors made by the students. This particular approach was initially adopted by Hendrickson in 1984 when he published 'The treatment of error in written work'. Ellis (1994, pg. 94-95) adopts a slightly different approach and explains that correction was merely the tutor's way to prove the errors of the students through identifying where they went wrong and disallowing them to continue on the same pattern.

Outline of studies conducted on Error Treatment

Changes in the structure of teaching English as a second language has also resulted in simultaneous changes when tackling with the errors made by ESL students. Since the new structure of teaching is based on effective communication instead of rigid correctness, the overall strictness on grammatical use has also been somewhat eased over the years (Bell, 1992, pg. 21-32; Lee, 1997, pg. 465-477). Till late 1960s the main focus for ESL teachers had been the memorization of the accepted formats and standards of English language in order to construct standardized and correct sentences. The highest priority was to get the grammar absolutely correct which is why all errors were corrected at the initial stages. Mings (1993, pg. 171-179) explains that errors were beyond unacceptable; if errors were made they were treated as immoral. Major explains that because of the rigidity of the approach, it didn't fulfill its aim of enabling students to make correct sentences individually or decipher their varying meanings (Major, 1988, pg. 81-100). Hendrickson explains that memorization was useless as students more or less forgot what they learned over a passage of time (Hendrickson, 1980, pg. 153-173).

Another improved change in the outline of researches emerged in the 1970s with the introduction of the second language acquisition (SLA) terminology. SLA needs to be efficiently defined when understanding the dynamics of the error treatment for ESL students. The SLA concept mainly highlights how learning a new language is always going to invoke a whole array of mistakes from the learners and that making these mistakes is part of their learning process. Furthermore, the concept of SLA heavily promotes the communicative format of learning and discarding the age-old tactic of memorization of grammatical rules and policies. Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982, pg.138) explain that no student can effectively "learn language without first systematically committing errors," which simply means that the errors made can be used as indicators to identify how much of the language students have actually learned.

Damaging Outlooks of Error Treatment

With every positive aspect associated to error correction is the direct and opposite negating aspect that needs to be addressed too. For all corrective measures that are helpful and successful in certain circumstances can be damaging and restricting if not exercised corrected. Kepner explains that error correction is still preferred by many despite the possible damaging outcomes because many believe that the damaging outcomes would be far more if the corrections were not made (Kepner, 1991, pg. 305-313). Truscott explains that error correction as a mere tool aimed to boost the overall performance of the student by correcting their grammar use was a damaging and useless activity specifically in the L2 writing classes as it made no major impact (Truscott, 1996, pg. 327-369). Truscott forced many to re-think their approach of teaching within the ESL class setting.

Constructive impacts of Error Treatment

The harsh criticisms on the use of error correction have not deterred many practitioners to still point out the many benefits of the system (Bell, 1992, pg. 21-32; Lyster et al., 1999, pg. 457-467). Chaudron (1986, pg. 64-84) explained that the error correction exercise might not have statistical backup on its constrictive impact but nonetheless has proven to have a beneficial impact on the overall communicational skills of the students. Many researchers (Birdsong, 1989 as cited in Wen, 1999, pg. 1-22) agree that the benefits for adult ESL students are extensive as they learn the practical use of both the standards of English grammar and the vocabulary. Hammerly however feels that the L2 students should not be taught ESL in a strict and rigid environment and not have all their mistakes corrected so that they can teach themselves the standards of English and is mostly the case with the first language of the students (Hammerly, 1991, pg. 120-208). This way their approach towards English would not only be taught but self-guided too.

Categories of Learner Errors

Like every other format of teaching, correction as a tool of teaching must also follow a systematic pattern so as to avoid confusion and ensure accurate understanding and high efficiency (Hammerly, 1991, pg. 120-208). A systematic patter of error correction mainly entails the precedence of certain correction of errors over others (Burt, 1975, pg. 53-63; Walz, 1982, pg. 853-894). Bartram and Walton (1991, pg. 87-91) explain that it is extremely important for the teachers to know the hierarchy of errors and give the more important errors precedence over other errors that might not be as important. The standardized categorization of errors accepted by teachers is (1) errors that are academically important, (2) repetitive errors, and (3) errors that present obstacles in practical interaction (Cohen, 1975, pg. 414-422; Hendrickson, 1980, pg. 153-173; and Walz, 1982, pg. 853-894).

Errors that are academically important to correct are usually errors made in understanding the objectivity and subjectivity of an academic topic (Wen, 1999, pg. 1-22). Cohen also explains that the students' understanding of the subject and all its angles is far more important then any other aspect of learning (cited in Hendrickson, 1980, pg. 153-173). Hammerly (1991, pg. 120-208) further explains that teachers should be able to spot and correct all mistakes and errors made by student pertaining to what was they had learned in the class. He explains that the errors made in what the students have been taught, which he calls 'distortion', take priority over the mistakes that they make unknowingly, which he calls 'fault', and both formats of mistakes require different input from the teachers. He explains that distortion errors are more important to correct then fault errors because the fault errors are usually a case of over-zealous attitude from the students and taking on something that was beyond their course and capacity.

The second most important error to correct is the repetitive error (Allwright, 1975, pg. 96-106; Mings, 1993, pg. 171-179). Walz (1982, pg. 853-894) explains that the repetitive errors are those that are made commonly by a major number of students in a class. This is more common in the grammar sphere of the language. Hence, it is important that teachers pay attention to the correct use of basic grammar of students instead of focusing on minor and less important grammatical errors. Hendrickson (1980, pg. 153-173) suggests that one way to identify the repetitive errors is though the use of grammar tests given at regular intervals. This will also help identify if the correction technique has worked and the extent at which further correction is needed. Burt, et al. (1982, pg. 245-277) explained that some of the common errors made by ESL students included the standardization of new rules, wrong use of tenses, excessive use of one format in numerous places, misusing or not using the grammatical morphemes, using words in the wrong order and utilizing two or more formats in haphazard patterns.

There are many ESL teachers and practitioners who agree that the errors that place obstacles in the communication process are also very important to correct. Even in correcting errors that impact the communication processes, many researchers, including Hammerly (1991, pg. 120-208), agree that those errors that impact the clarity of the communication need to be corrected foremost. Burt and Kiparsky categorized the communication errors as global and local i.e. global errors in communicating are those that make the communication difficult or a failure while the local errors are minor misuses of nouns or verbs that can make the communication clumsy or inept but still comprehensible (cited in Raimes, 1991, pg. 55-64).

The techniques of Error Treatment

Along with the identification and categorization of errors, the processes involved in the correction of the errors are critically important in attaining the aims of teaching ESL. One of the most effective techniques has been to give the corrected use with varying examples (Hendrickson, 1980, pg. 153-173). However, teachers and practitioners realize the importance of having more then one successful strategy that can be employed in different circumstances (Lynch, 1996, cited in Muncie, 2000, pg. 47-53). Holley and King (1971, cited in Hendrickson, 1980, pg. 153-173) explain that the use of techniques which cause embarrassment or shame to students should be used as it would discourage them and negatively impact their self-esteem.

From here on out, the literature review will highlight some of the more effective error correction techniques that have been approved by teachers and researcher alike. One of these techniques is the use of explicit and implicit format of correction. We will also discuss how the extent of explicitness used is dependent upon the kind of errors made, the language skills established and the goal of learning the language. Furthermore, we will also analyze the application of the correction codes regulations.

Explicit Correction and Implicit Correction general categorization of the teachers' approach towards correcting errors is usually done into explicit and implicit approaches (Ayoun, 2001, pg. 226-243). The explicit approach can simply explained a direct correction from the teacher when he/she identifies and explains the mistakes made by each student. The implicit approach is a direct approach adopted by the teacher where he/she indicates the mistakes through giving hints and discussing the mistakes generally in class. The implicit approach mainly incorporates personal reflection for correction and peer input (see Ferris, 1995b, pg. 18-22). The explicit approach is very helpful in tackling certain formats of errors like the correct use of words or the correct expression of a thought (Kubota, 2001, pg. 467-480). Even though explicit teaching a direct highlighting of the errors, it is not exactly embarrassing or shameful for the student if the teacher is very clear in where the problem (Zamel, 1985, pg. 103-110; Cohen, 1987, pg. 57-69). Implicit approach is more useful when tackling the grammatical errors or when pointing out the differences between similar words. Both of these approaches are very successful for adult ESL students however they need to be effectively mixed and matched in accordance to the circumstance to attain a consistent level of efficiency (Carroll & Swain, 1993, pg. 357-386).

Extent of Explicitness

The extent to which explicitness can be used as a mode of correction is dependent upon four factors, as recognized by Hendrickson (1984, pg. 145-159), which are the student's set of skills in the language or command over the language, the aim of the student for learning the language, the kind of errors that the student makes as well as the student's reaction to being corrected under explicit instructions (Hendrickson, 1984, pg. 145-159). All these factors will allow the teacher to adapt towards an explicit or a more moderate approach; however, in our study we will not incorporate the fourth factor.

The set of language skills is a very clear indicator of the level of explicit input that the student needs. The more skilled the student will get with the dynamics of the language the less explicit help they'll need; in fact, a mere indication would be enough for them to correct themselves. This simply means that the students will eventually be capable enough to spot and correct their own mistakes (Hendrickson, 1984, pg. 145-159). For beginners obviously, the extent of explicit correctness will be high because of their unfamiliarity with the language that they are learning (Mantello, 1997, pg. 127-131). Hence, for beginners, the extent of explicitness is high while for adult learners the extent of explicit correction is low.

Furthermore, the aim of the students to learn the language or take up ESL lessons is very important in order to isolate or prioritize the errors that the teachers would want to correct. Eskey (1983pg. 312-323) explains that if the aim is to improve the overall academic communicational purposes then the simple and basic language skills will not be enough. Ferris (1999, pg.. 1-11) explains that understanding the dynamics of language within the aim of learning it is really important in order to improve the overall performance of the ESL student. Ferris also confirms that the understanding of the dynamics of the language allows students to self-correct their mistakes and this fact is also supported by Tono and Kanatani (1996, pg. 1-11) in their study.

Variety of Errors

Another important aspect that determines the extent of explicitness that needs to be used is the variety of the kind of error that the student is making. Common mistakes can always be handled within the implicit approach. Furthermore, the mistakes that are minor and have not a major significance can be touched lightly in an implicit and brief class session. Robb, Ross and Shortreed (1986, pg. 85-95) claim that all grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and other surface errors can be handled implicitly so that those who are unaware of their mistakes can correct themselves and those who are correct can revise the lesson. This particular understanding is supported by many researchers including Lalande (1982,pg. 140-149), Hammerly (1991, pg. 120-208) and Fathman and Whalley (1990, pg. 178-190). Also simple underlining of the errors, which constitutes as explicit teaching, can very easily help students correct themselves (Haswell, 1983, pg. 600-604; Hendrickson, 1980, pg. 153-173).

Correction Codes

There are many studies and practitioners who support the use of correction codes as a regular tool of correction for ESL students (for example, see Bartram & Walton, 1991, pg- 87-91; Oshima, 1991, pg. 140-172). Correction codes are merely the use of symbols like "?" For the questionable use or expression of a word or expression or " T " for the wrong use of a tense or "()

" for moving the word or phrase in another place in the text or the use of " * " for indicating a factual error or the use of "Sp" to indicate a spelling mistake; all of which are a form of explicit teaching techniques (Walz, 1982).

Some of the other common correction codes are:

.. Wrong answer

Abb... No need for abbreviation

.. change the font and make it bold

Bib... List the complete references

X-Bib... References wrongly cited

.. Wrong or incorrect diction

..Grammatical error

IS... Incomplete sentence

ITL... Italicize

.. Argument needs more logic

NS... Non-sequitur i.e. wrong or illogical use of a preposition (or simply put Prep)

.. mistake in Punctuation start a new paragraph

Quo... use quotation marks

Sp

Spelling error (S drawn through a word)

SC... wrong or illogical Sentence construction

V... Subject / verb agreement

.. wrong Tense used

PaT... use Past tense

PrT... use the present tense

.. use Underline

Upside-down Y... word missing

XW... Wrong wording

Hyland (1990, pg. 279-285) explains that the main advantage of using correction codes is that they reduce the overall damaging impact that having errors might have on the students as they merely interpret the codes as indications towards the corrected use and not how they have incorrectly used a word or phrase. It furthermore reduces the level of red on eth page of the student even if he or she has made obvious errors (Sheppard, 1992, pg. 105-6). Furthermore, the correction codes give the teachers to pay more attention on the content and context of the subject as opposed to small surface errors which hamper the overall evaluation yet don't have an impact on the communication or academic performance of the students (Zamel, 1985, pg. 80-101).

Taxonomy

The term "taxonomy" was first introduced in 1984 in a study conducted by Ziv, where she used the term as a synonym or substitute for the word "treatment" that was more popularly used in ESL studies at the time. The term taxonomy basically interprets the term "correction" in a much more literal and controlled manner which basically denotes that correction is done when the teachers give a direct answer to the students on where they went wrong. Ziv's use of the word taxonomy was mainly revolved around the explicit prompts, implicit prompts and direct corrections. For Ziv, it was more important for the teacher to merely indicate to the students where there mistakes could be and allow them the chance of self-correction. This format is, as aforementioned, is more useful for adult learners whereas the mistakes made by young learners need to be explicitly and/or implicitly "corrected" before they can have efficient command on the language they are learning (Ziv, 1984, pg. 365-375).

Burt, Dulay and Krashen (1982) in their study have mainly focused on how the behaviorism of students impacts their learning abilities and why correction treatments should not ignore behavior patterns. They argued that language acquisition was basically a set of habits that made the written errors common amongst some and uncommon amongst others. They claimed that grammar and rules were mainly abstract notions and could not be treated scientifically because they were not quantifiable, hence treating language teaching as a scientific element (which was very dominant at the time) was the reason that effective error treatments could not be formulated. They explained that the acquisition of the mother tongue was more or less the same as the acquisition of a foreign language and proved this through their cross-sectional survey on Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking Californians who were learning English. The explained that the level of difficulty experienced was an indicator of the level of understanding or lack of it and that mistakes were more or less similar, not exact or proportionate but similar, for students when they were learning the L1 or L2 languages (Burt, Dulay and Krashen, 1982, pg. 245-270).

The taxonomy introduced by Krashen (2004) is perhaps the most useful in the current dynamics of ESL learning amongst junior and adult learners. He has divided the ESL process into language learning and language acquisition. The former is more regulated by rules of the language while the latter is a more unconscious and natural understanding of the language. He feels that through the acquisition process should take place before the learning process so that when the student is more familiar with the common-sense of the language and reaches the intermediate level, then the teacher can step in with explicit and implicit methods of instruction that allow the student to concentrate on the context and meaning of the subject along with the grammar (Krashen, 2004, pg. 2-6). He divides the acquisition process into 1) the natural order hypothesis where a structured understanding of the different parts of the language is given; 2) the monitor hypothesis where self- correction is promoted; 3) the input hypothesis where students are encouraged to interpret and comprehend the topic; and 4) the affective filter hypothesis where students grow accustomed to and comfortable with conducting a conversation in the language (Krashen, 2004, p.2-6).

Conclusion

Throughout the literature review, we have focused on the extent and category of the studies that have been conducted within the genre of ESL and the error correction techniques that can and are being used in ESL classroom settings. The chapter highlights the theoretical and practical conclusions made on the techniques that can be used to identify and correct the written errors made by ESL students. The paper has also given ample support and highlighted the criticisms given so as to be able to give a full overview of the subject of the paper. The literature review has also distinguished the use of teachings for both the adult and beginning learners and how different techniques can be used differently in different circumstances.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

The main focus of this section will be to highlight the different methodological research tools and system used to collect and analyse all the relevant data that is needed to determine the effectiveness of the different error treatments used in the ESOL class settings.

Research Questions

For the objective of finding out the necessity, impact and dependency on error treatment for ESOL teachers, we have formulated the following research questions that can form basis for the interviews taken by the teachers and the students.

How often are error treatment techniques and corrections used in order to teach English to SLA students?

How often do implicit correction techniques help the students from different levels, i.e. beginner, intermediate and adult?

How is one format of an implicit correction technique different from another based on the different category and types of errors made?

How often do explicit correction techniques help the students from different levels, i.e. beginner, intermediate and adult?

How is one format of an explicit correction technique different from another based on the different category and types of errors made?

What error treatment techniques are most effective? Why?

What error treatment techniques are most popular amongst students? Why?

What impact does the student's ethnic and social background and setting have on his/her ability to tackle ESOL lessons and corrections?

How much influence does the taught subject matter have on the overall understanding of the English language?

What are the gaps between the theory and practical application of the error treatment techniques?

Written Sample Selection

The sample selected for this study is focused around the students who are taking ESL classes at the College of London. There will be a total of 6 students (2 from each level ie. beginner, intermediate and adult) and 3 teachers (1 from each level ie. beginner, intermediate and adult) selected. Further details will be discussed in the remainder of this section.

Sample of teachers:

The teachers that were requested for guidance on correction techniques and interviews were all experienced teachers who had been teaching English as a second language at the College of London for 5 years or more. The beginner and intermediate classes that these teachers taught were mainly about communicative or general English while the teacher teaching the adult class was focused on a course of English that taught the students the do's and don'ts of occupational/business communication. Hence, the errors were treated slightly differently by the third teacher; however, the differences weren't significant enough to cause a rift in the aim of our study.

Student Written Samples - Validity

Initially, the aim was to attain the writing samples from the students that were part of the sample, but due to the inferior match of the writing with the aim of this study, we have created six samples from scratch. To attain validity of the errors, we consulted the students form the sample to make sure that the data was correct according to their standards. Furthermore, the correction process of these written samples also led to direct interviews from the teachers regarding their correction techniques as well as their effectiveness.

Created Written Samples:

1. Beginner:

One beginner sample is a letter and the second is a piece of writing on 'autism; a brief introduction':

Sample #1 with corrections:

Dear Magdalena, hope you (auxiliary verb format missing, 'are' to be used) enjoying yourself at universytet (wrong language application: correct English word is 'university'). I'm sure you study hard (wrong tense, action continuing, present continuous should be used 'you are studying hard'). I can't believe this is your final year! I am so prud (Spelling mistake, correct spelling 'proud'). Everything is fine here in (incorrect preposition used, Should be 'at') home (conjunction needed, 'and') I am finally healthy. I tolld (Spelling mistake) you on the (unnecessary article) phone I was so ill. I waked (incorrect tense usage) up one day felling terrible (wrong word from, needs to be 'terribly') sick and I had terrible (repetition distasteful, use different word with appropriate article) headache. I was to (incorrect spelling) ill to go work. Joseph said I have to see doctor and he tookd (wrong tense) me (phrase missing, needs to add 'to the family doctor's to make sense) surgery. (Article needed, 'the') Doctor checked me and he (unnecessary word) asked me (unnecessary word) questions about (add article 'the') food eat (change form to past perfect along with necessary adjustments, 'I had eaten'). I told her I eat (wrong tense usage) cream cake (add article 'the') day before. Miss Stencil said I have food poisoning but is (action is already in the past, wrong tense usage) not serious. (I was so scared, do you remember last summer? I had the same problem, I was in Gdansk hospital (add correct proposition, 'for') three weeks). I take (incorrect tense usage) three days of (spelling mistake; add appropriate preposition, 'from') work, I spend one day in bed and felt so (wrong word usage, use 'much') better. I spend (incorrect tense; add article 'the') rest of (add article 'the') week reading (add article 'the') book you gave me for the (wrong article usage) last Christams (spelling mistake) and listening (add preposition 'to') this CD (add 'which' to correct the sentence structure) I bohut (spelling mistake) in London and I have (wrong tense form, should be 'had') very great (inappropriate word usage, could use 'pleasant' or 'satisfying') time! Anyway I can't wait see you on (incorrect preposition usage, should use 'in') December. Write (add preposition 'to') me soon.

Love, Monika.

Sample #2 with corrections:

Autism has been (T; PaT) basically recognized (XW) by Dr. Leo Kanner in 1943 when he worked at the Johns Hopkins Hospital (Bib). Simple say (SC), autism is a (X article) intricate and (upside down Y) neurobiological disorder that cannot complete cure (T) but be controlling. (Add article 'the') Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is the many (XW) common disorders now (revise word usage) occurring in 1 out of any (revise word usage) 150 person (X form). Which (XW) make ASD far (upside down Y) common then (XW) other deadly diseases including dibeties (Sp), cancer or aids (capitalize). Not like (XW) other disorder (X form) declared (XW) ASD actually was restricted not to every boundary but is high common boys and not girls (?).

2. Intermediate:

The first sample writing taken from the intermediate learner is on the subject of colors while the second sample is based on the subject of teams.

Sample #1 with corrections:

Colors is (X form) used to, from the painter as well as the viewer (P), denote or provoke (XW) a certain mood, idea or position (SC). And usually any (revise word usage) culture have (T) a different detonation (XW) and emotions or mood linkeds (X) to the different colors; how ever (Sp) the interpertations (Sp) of the color that exist (T) in the western worlds is more and less (X phrase) the most unpopular and global in environment (revise word usage). The detonation (Sp) of each colors (X form) was be (Tense formation) discussed in detail later (NS or prep) but however (unnecessary addition) a many example (X form) of colors include why (XW) the color green is believed to be like (revise word usage) nature while red (upside down Y) threat. Because (XW), mainly warm or summer colors like (add article 'the') orange and yellow and red are (SC) believe (T) to be indicate (XW) most happy times (SC), as the winter colors like (add article 'the') blue and gray and green are indicate sober (upside down Y).

Sample #2 with corrections:

The main aim of main (revise word usage) educational standards in uk (capitalize) how (XW) is to simple (XW) and eradicate the many (SC) differences exist (upside down Y) the different ethnic cities (Sp) as well as the student studying in reverse (revise word usage) categories of subjects by simply re creating (SP) and re forming (SP) the primary educational connect (XW). One of the main tactic (G) to via duct (SP) these differences in interactions is the employment of the team work phenomenon (?). / / The vocal (XW) reason behind employee (XW) such a tactic in educational set is as of (SC) the fact that the attitude of team working has demonstrate (X form) promises (Word confusion) outcomes in the business world that exclude (SC) outcomes like: reductions in expenses and cycle timing (revise word usage); stage of (Prep) accuracy and superiority; and (Upside down Y) along with decreased levels of non-attending (revise word usage).

3. Adult:

The first sample taken from the adult learner is on the effectiveness of ESL techniques and the second sample is on the subject of nutrition.

Sample #1 with corrections:

Using the environment of classrooms is a great way to make students counter (word confusion) the hurdles and tests that they need to over come (Sp) together as a group in order to maintain (revise word usage) their goal. It is of course (P) important for (add article 'the') teachers to make students more comfortable in (Prep) working together in social settings before applying the SBI design so that the students are unaccustomed (XW) with the concept and takes (T) less time adjusting to it (X form) demands. / / Further more (Sp), it is also important that the teachers initi-ate (Sp) the SBI processes with smaller and simpler tasks where the entirety of class (SC) will be willing to collaborate and learn inside one (revise word usage) social setting. Just like any other mechanics (XW) or teaching techniques SBI what's more (revise word usage) needs a lot of pre-determined development and managements (XW) earlier than (XW) it can be implemented in a classroom setting.

Sample #2 with corrections:

With the changed (T) dynamics and demanded (T) of the business world it is important to altar (XW) the necessities provided to the employees. One of the recent (upside down Y) focuses on a (revise article use) important necessity has been the nutritional in take (Sp) of the employees within the work place (Sp). This is (upside down Y) we analyze (prep) analyse the economical (XW) advantages that appropriate nutrition will (T) bring to the overall employe (SP) performance in the short and the long running (XW). One relative (upside down Y) will be on the impact that globalization (Sp) and technologic (XW) changes have had on the health of the current and further (XW) business employees.

Research Methods

Methods

The min method used in this study to analyze the errors made by ESL students and the relative corrections made by teachers were through the distribution of essay topics like a letter to friend, nutrition, autism, ESL and its effectiveness, etc. The students chose the topics of choice but due to the inferior match of the writing with the aim of this study, we took the same topics chosen and created 6 writing samples from scratch. The teacher's corrections were noted through observation and interviews. All codes and error treatments used by the teachers were then identified and analysed. Furthermore, all the errors were identified and categorized in ranks of importance and repetition. Finally, the impact of the error treatments on the students' overall performances was evaluated.

Pilot study

One of the strategies employed in this research will be to conduct a pilot study of 3 students from the sample already mentioned in order to clearly understand the logistics and the difficulties that might arise when conducting the actual interview process. This will help the researcher asses the reliability and validity of the potential outcomes and expected results as well as analyze whether the error treatment techniques used are practically applicable and efficient.

A pilot study will also help the researcher in making sure that the sample selected will be sufficient to conduct a thorough and comprehensive research on the effectiveness of error treatments (explicit and implicit) with the ESL class setting.

Furthermore, all the processes that will be applied in the data collection can also be checked for practical feasibility in the pilot study.

A pilot study will also help the researcher in identifying the setbacks or negative impacts that the research method or results may have in the short or long run.

Research Tools

In this section, the most common errors made by ESL students at the beginner, intermediate and adult levels will be identified and categorized based on the frequency of these errors at the different levels. This simply means that the most common errors committed at each level will be classified below in order to highlight the errors that are most associated or commonly found in each level.

Furthermore, in this section, we will also particularly highlight the correction codes and other taxonomies that are used in error treatment techniques. All of the highlighted taxonomies have already been discussed in the literature review and have significant importance in this section as here we see the practical use of those taxonomies in real situations. Some of the examples form the above sample writings will also be given to clearly exhibit the mistakes made at each level.

Classification of learner errors

For beginners:

Proper verb junctions.

Knowing when to use, and whether to use, definite and indefinite articles.

Spelling mistakes. (tolld, prud, of, dibeties)

Incorrect use of articles and prepositions. (here in home, days off work)

Tenses. (I waked up, he tookd)

For intermediate learners:

Proper verb junctions.

Word-Meaning confusions. (usually any culture, green is believed to be like nature)

Spelling mistakes. (ethnic cities, via duct, how ever)

Tenses. (red are believe to be)

Incorrect use of articles and prepositions.

Inappropriate punctuations.

For adult learners:

Proper Verb/Noun usage.

Similar words or phrases confusion. (counter instead of encounter)

Spelling Mistakes (globalization, in take, work place)

Classification of error treatment methods

Explicit methods of error treatment include:

Giving the actual correct answer [universytet (wrong language application: correct English word is 'university')] [prud (Spelling mistake, correct spelling 'proud')]

Utilizing a direct correction code [Simple say (SC), autism is] [Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is the many (XW)]

Implicit methods of error treatment include:

Hints [the color green is believed to be like (revise word usage) nature] [The main aim of main (revise word usage) educational standards] [ASD actually was restricted not to every boundary but is high common boys and not girls (?)]

Highlighting or encircling the error

Data Analyses

In the data analyses section of this chapter, we will first highlight the various quantitative results that we attained when collecting the errors and analyzing the respective correction techniques used. We will also highlight the dependent and independent variables of the study and conclude with an evaluation of the qualitative data that was collected through the analyses of correction techniques used.

Quantitative data

Procedure for analysis

For identifying and analysing the errors we used the correction codes that are popularly used by the ESL teachers at the College of London. These correction codes have already been highlighted in the literature review ( -- ¢ X... Wrong answer, • Abb... No need for abbreviation, • B... change the font and make it bold

• Upside-down Y... word missing, • XW... Wrong wording). Any of the errors that were missed by the teacher or were missing in the correction codes given were also highlighted through a used of exterior correction codes (e.g. word confusion, X form, revise word usage, etc.).

Variables

Dependent Variable:

The dependent variable in our analysis is to identify the various explicit and implicit error techniques used within the ESL class.

Independent Variables:

Teacher's Inputs i.e. teaching tactics before and after error treatments have been initiated

Student Feedback

Practical Application of the error treatments

The ethnic and social background of the students

The courses being studied

These independent variables have several intervening variables and situations, which have been elaborated in the literature review. We will be testing the relationship of each intervening variable with the independent variable and finally the relationship of each independent variable with the dependent variable. This will be done to explore the practical use of the error treatments being implemented and their impact.

Qualitative data

The evaluation of the qualitative data collected through this study will help link the future practitioners to link the error patterns to the treatment procedures and their impact. The qualitative data that can be very effectively collected through this study includes: the structure of correction techniques used by teachers for specific courses, the ethnic and social impact on learning abilities and the regular use of certain treatment methods over others for the correction of specified errors.

Ethics

This research is in accordance with the practitioners' work values and respects human dignity and demonstrates a commitment to human justice. It is also expected that research has a purpose of furthering information about the phenomenon of sexual harassment in different dynamics, specifically the work environment. It is anticipated that this research will contribute to increase the knowledge of current policies being implemented and provide a basis for future discussions and development of policies.

The subjects will be informed of the fact that their observations would be used as data in this dissertation. This raises ethical issues in terms of subjects giving fully informed consent for the research to include their observations and comments for the case study. Pole & Lampard (2002) suggest that a balance has to be reached between giving too much information that may bias research findings and conducting covert research, which may harm participants. This will be overcome by explaining to all what method is involved and reassuring them that they would not be identifiable in the final research.

Concluding Remarks

In this chapter, the main focus was on the methodological breakdown of how the study would be practically conducted. The research questions highlighted will be expected to be answered at the completion of the study. In this section, all of the surrounding settings and peripheries were also highlighted that could either help or hinder the process of the study. The sample and the criteria behind choosing the sample was also explained in this section along with the research method and research tools applied. Te pilot study and the advantages of conducting it were also highlighted in this section and lastly the data collection and data analysis processes were explained. The next chapter will highlight the discussion and results of the main study, with all related components, including the interviews of the teachers and students that were conducted (created) for this study.

Chapter 4: Results and Conclusion

In the final chapter of this study, all of the results and interpretations will be described fully within the dynamics of the purpose of the study i.e. highlighting the common errors and common corrective measures as well as understanding the association or link between all relative literature on the use of corrective measures and their practical implementation. Furthermore, this chapter will include the quantitative assessments of the errors made and corrective methods used. This will be followed by the qualitative assessment of all techniques used and their impact.