Vocational Courses in High School

Vocational Courses in High School

"I'm dropping out of high school...."

Unfortunately, this quote, which relates to the introductory citation by Gray, occurs too frequently in high schools. This literature review, which encompasses 20 sources, explores reasons relating to the inclusion of vocational courses in high school, and presents ways this effort counters and/or coalesces the high school dropout rate. The 20 researched sources are presented from the oldest to the most recently published and primarily include information from scholarly journals.

What's Not Working

In Career Centered High School Education and Post-High School Career Adaptation, a journal article, Susan Gore, Stacey Kadish, and Robert H. Aseltine Jr. purport: "The poor quality of jobs available to young people who lack education beyond high school has been well documented over the past three decades (see Lewis, Stone, Shipley, & Madzar, 1998; Rosenbaum, Kariya, Setterstein, & Maier, 1990)." These authors argue that current courses and curriculum choices are not working and that "alternative public and private mechanisms for achieving effective career pathways must be developed." (Gore, Kadish & Aseltine, 2003) Gore, Kadish and Aseltine (2003) examine whether students participating in career-centered high school programs experience a better work-life after they graduate from high school. Initially, during the winter and spring of 1998, and then approximately 2.5 years later, a second time, the authors collect data from a group of 1,143 high school seniors. Schools included a University-based consortium of schools involved in curriculum development for school-to-work initiatives. "In each case, a school-to-work focus is embedded within the standard state-mandated curriculum requirements and is reflected in the concept of a career-major or pathway, that is, career-centered study that is typically formalized in the junior year and which may include internships." (Gore, Kadish & Aseltine, 2003) Although the effects and explained variance were reportedly minute, results of the study by Gore, Kadish and Aseltine (2003) offer modest support that a student's career-major influences some psychological aspects of work adaptation. These authors note a consistent positive effect of the major observed exists for the three subjective measures of job quality and career progress. Collectively, results of the three subjective measures "indicate that the career-majors perceive themselves as in a job or job situation that has future potential and that meets personal expectations about where they 'should be' in their career development."

Preparing Adolescents

In the journal article, Preparing Rural Adolescents for Post-High School Transitions, Richard T. Lapan, Bradley Tucker, Se-Kang Kim, John F. Kosciulek, contend that: "Preparing adolescents from diverse backgrounds to transition more effectively into satisfying, productive, and personally valued post-high school settings has become one of the central responsibilities for counselors working in school settings." The authors assess preparation for the post-high school transition in two ways:

Researchers collected measurements of six individual career constructs.

Researchers assessed students' satisfaction with "their school's help toward achieving future educational and career goals and the level of education required by students' anticipated first post-high school setting." (Lapan, Tucker, Kim & Kosciulek, 2003)

The four curriculum strategies studied were (a) the organization of classes around a career goal (organized curriculum), (b) teaching instruction that demonstrates to students the relevance of course content to the world of work (relevant curriculum), - work-based learning experiences, and (d) connected learning activities. Emotional/instrumental support for students from the following stakeholders was also studied: (a) school counselors, (b) teachers, and - multiple stakeholders (i.e., global rating of overall support from eight different sources, including parents). (Lapan, Tucker, Kim & Kosciulek, 2003)

Results from the study Lapan, Tucker, Kim & Kosciulek (2003) conducted proved to be as expected: "the six constructs that make up the career development composite variable were often significantly correlated with each other across the three samples of students."

The enormity of these relationships suggest that even though they relate to each another, the six constructs individually also address independent aspects of career development.

The authors stress the current need exists for schools to help students learn how to thrive in the economy they plan to enter. (Reilly, 2000, cited by Lapan, Tucker, Kim & Kosciulek, 2003) Schools and school programs, as well as, practicing counselors and researchers will increasingly be held accountable; the authors contend, for the opportunity to connect career development activities to current, critical educational reform enterprises. (Herr, 1969; Hoyt, 1998, cited by Lapan, Tucker, Kim & Kosciulek, 2003)

Initiation Into the Real World

In Teaching to Learn, Learning to Teach: A Handbook for Secondary School Teachers, a book by Alan J. Singer (2003, p. 41), Steve Bologna shares his personal experience of attending vocational school: "During my junior year of high school, I was placed in a vocational training program for aircraft mechanics. They taught us to do everything 'by the book.' We were supposed to follow directions and work step-by-step according to the manual. The best part of the program was that it taught me how to handle tools and how to work with others. I had a big surprise when I began working as an aircraft mechanic.

The old-timers quickly initiated us into the real world. They put the manual aside and took shortcuts as they worked. In the beginning, I questioned their methods, but as time passed I realized they understood the job. Being a mechanic was about solving problems, not simply following instructions. This is the most significant thing I learned from my vocational training and I think it will help me wherever I go, whatever I do. People learn best by doing and the most important learning is figuring out how to solve problems." (Singer, 2003, p. 41)

Career and Technical Education

Is High School Career and Technical Education Obsolete?, the title for the journal article by Kenneth Gray, the point is stressed that: "The lack of an alternative to strict academics is one reason why most dropouts choose to leave school in the first place. And while academics are important for any occupation, any labor market advantage for the work-bound high school student who is competing for jobs that provide career possibilities and a living wage comes from having occupation-specific skills as well." (Gray, 2004, p. 128) Gray questions the viability of high school vocational education, currently known as Career and Technical Education (CTE) and notes that the common academic curriculum approach does not proffer a substantial amount of relevance to particularly the 25% of students who drop out of high school, as well as, the 30% of students who do graduate from high school and move straightforwardly into the workforce. Curriculum choices are vital at the high school level, Gray contends - if the goal to leave no child behind constitutes a truth. "No single program of study will work with all students." (Gray, 2004, p. 128) to some students, CTE fills the same need as Advanced Placement and honors courses fill of others.

No National Standards or Curriculum

Cathleen Stasz and Susan Bodilly (2004), authors of Efforts to Improve the Quality of Vocational Education in Secondary Schools: Impact of Federal and State Policies, report:

The National Assessment of Vocational Education -- a congressionally-mandated study -- is charged with evaluating the impact of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998, known as Perkins III, and preparing a report to Congress by July 2002. As part of that effort, the National Assessment of Vocational Education commissioned RAND to conduct a study to assess the quality of vocational education in the United States. The purpose of the study is twofold. It will provide evidence on the extent to which actual practice is consistent with legislative and other views of what constitutes "quality" practice in secondary vocational education. It also will provide evidence regarding how policies made at different levels of the education system enhance or impede implementation of quality practice. RAND's findings as described in this report provide some of the information NAVE needs to evaluate the impact of the Perkins Act and prepare its report to Congress. They also yield lessons for the larger vocational education community by identifying strategies that can be adopted by schools, communities and states to improve the quality of vocational education programs.

Vocational and technical education is defined in Public Law 105-332 as organized educational activities that individuals need to prepare for further education and for careers requiring less than a baccalaureate degree. The educational activities are to offer a sequence of courses that provide individuals the necessary academic and technical knowledge and skills and to include competency-based applied learning. Federal funding for vocational education commenced with the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, and since that time federal legislation has sought to shape vocational education in specific ways. Vocational education, like all education in the United States, has traditionally been the domain of states and local communities. The federal government plays an important role in education through its leadership and funding, but the vocational education "system" has no national standards or curriculum. (Stasz, and Bodilly, 2004)

Federal legislation purports to, over time, enhance influence over state vocational education programs. Specific guidance on the types of improvements a state vocational education program should incorporate to enhance quality Perkins III offered included:

integrating academics into vocational and technical studies;

adopting challenging academic, vocational and technical standards;

promoting understanding of "all aspects" of an industry; encouraging parent and employer involvement; building linkages to postsecondary education; expanding use of technology; and providing for professional development of teachers, counselors and administrators. (Stasz, and Bodilly, 2004)

In the press release by Mike Bowler and David Thomas (2005), High School Students Using Dual Enrollment Programs to Earn College Credits, New Reports Say. According to this report, the federal budget proposes to increase access to "dual enrollment" programs for at-risk students. Out of the approximately 2,050 institutions with dual enrollment programs, almost 110 institutions, or 5% (about 2% of all institutions) offered dual enrollment programs specifically aimed toward high school students "at risk" for failing academically. Two new reports by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics also confirm that high school students currently take advantage of programs to earn college credits. The High School Initiative, designed to help prepare high school students to graduate with skills needed to succeed, permits states and districts to utilize funding for:

individual performance plans, dropout prevention efforts, demanding vocational and technical courses, college awareness and more projects.

Perkins Bill

Sean Cavanagh (2006) reports in Perkins Bill is Approved by Congress that career and technical education programs will begin to experience new pressures to confirm they are adhering to rigorous academic standards, while guiding high school students through a lineup of courses to effectively prepares them for college and/or the workplace. These stipulations are under a bill approved by Congress. "The reauthorization of the federal law known as the Perkins Act - dealing with what traditionally has been called vocational education - will not subject state and local programs to the stricter demands and penalties of the No Child Left Behind Act, however. Critics in some quarters, including the White House, have said that such programs should be held to much tougher standards than they currently face." (Cavanagh, 2006) Under the rules of the 4-1/2-year-old No Child Left Behind law, the measure requires career-oriented programs receiving federal funds to more consistently report test scores and graduation rates. It also stipulates that states more actively "spell out specific sequences of core academic and technical classes that students should follow from grade to grade." (Cavanagh, 2006)

Minority Similarities and Differences in the journal article, What Do They Want in Life?: The Life Goals of a Multi-Ethnic, Multi-Generational Sample of High School Seniors, Esther S. Chang, Chuansheng Chen, Ellen Greenberger, David Dooley, and Jutta Heckhausen (2006) address:

adolescent life goals and their potential role in the emergence of educational and occupational disparities between different ethnic groups. A recent analysis of U.S. Census data by the Population Reference Bureau (2000) confirmed that significant educational and occupational disparities persist across ethnic groups. A higher proportion of Whites and Asians hold higher status jobs and college degrees compared to African-American and Hispanic adults. In 1998, for example, 33% of Whites and 34% of Asian-Americans held managerial and professional white-collar jobs compared to 20% of African-Americans and 15% of Hispanics. In contrast, 20% of African-Americans and 22% of Hispanics worked as semi-or unskilled workers compared to 12% of Whites and 11% of Asians. Similarly, 28% of Whites and 44% of Asian and Pacific Islanders hold a bachelor's degree, compared to only 17% of Blacks and 11% of Hispanics. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002, cited by Chan, Chen, Greenberger, Dooley, and Heckhausen, 2006)

Intervention programs would do well to help minority youths translate their high educational aspirations into concrete actions," Chan, Chen, Greenberger, Dooley, and Heckhausen (2006) contend. From their study of a sample of graduating high school seniors, the authors find that in regard to personal future plans, multi-ethnic, multi-generational differ very little from each other. In this study, minority adolescents, albeit, reportedly have higher educational and occupational aspirations than their White peers. In the absence of programs to provide increased funding for higher education for these (and other) minority groups, however, the authors argue, interventions aimed at the individual will most likely not be sufficient. (Chang, Chen, Greenberger, Dooley & Heckhausen, 2006)

Reasons Students Drop Out of High School in the journal article, Are Students Ready for College? What Student Engagement Data Say; How Realistic Are High School Students' Educational Aspirations? Reviewing the Findings of the High School Survey of Student Engagement, Ms. McCarthy and Mr. Kuh Note a Troubling Mismatch between the Academic Habits of Many High School Students and What Will Be Expected of Them in College, Martha Mccarthy and George D. Kuh (2006) report that employers and university faculty members contend the senior year in high school to be an educational wasteland. Educators and employers "lament that high school graduates do not have the knowledge, academic skills, and practical competencies to perform adequately in college or work environments. " (Conley, 2001,pp. 26-41, cited by Mccarthy & Kuh, 2006, p. 664)

Part of the reasons students drop out of high school is attributed to the fact they do not develop skills vital to succeed in school, basic skills, for example, such as, spelling, writing, and basic math computation. In addition, a number of students attending college are not adequately prepared. Mccarthy and Kuh (2006, p. 664) stress it is vital to ensure students take the right courses in high school.

Helping Students Prepare for Life

In the magazine article, Intelligent Redesign: Let's Reframe the Discussion on High School Reform by First Reaching a Consensus on What High Schools Are Supposed to Do, Paul D. Houston (2006) notes that high schools serve as prep schools for a student's later life and as a place for students to prepare for adulthood. Vocational courses help students prepare for a future job. "21st-century schools," according to Houston (2006), not only provide vocational focused on student's future working lives, but also produce positive results as they are academically rigorous. These schools engage students and offer hands-on programs. One example Houston (2006) describes involves students constructing a "battlebot," a robot used in gaming to battle other robots. Some may consider the fun work in these vocational courses frivolous, however, what actually happens in the class is that students learn and begin to understand about "metallurgy, structures, engines, insulation and a hundred other difficult concepts." (Houston, 2006) Students also learn that work on a project, like work in a vocation, can be hard, yet enjoyable.

Discrepancy in Matching Students' Employment Opportunities "Maintaining the Class": Teachers in the New High Schools of the Banlieues, a French journal article by Frederic Viguier (2006), reports that even though an unspoken revolution brought 70% of a generation to the baccalaureat level during the past twenty years (up from 33% in 1986), students were not ensured they would obtain corresponding job opportunities. Viguier (2006) explores "this discrepancy and its contribution to the social and political construction of the 'probleme des banlieues'."

Minority Students Relationship to School Outcomes

In the journal article, School Characteristics Related to High School Dropout Rates, Christine a. Christle, Kristine Jolivette, and Nelso C. Michael (2007) cite Leone et al. (2003) to contend that the variable of student ethnicity, similar to poverty, depicts a strong historical relationship to school outcomes. In the study Christle, Jolivette and Michael (2007) complete, they relate the ethnic background of the student body to the dropout rate, noting: "the higher the dropout rates, the lower the percentage of White students."

The Center for Social Organization of Schools at Johns Hopkins University, Balfanz & Legters (2004, cited by Christle, Jolivette and Michael, 2007) report, found that across the United States, in a school where a majority of minority students attend, the school is five times more likely to possess weak promoting power than a majority White school. The report also notes that 46% of Black and 39% of Hispanic students attend schools where graduation does not constitute the norm.

Students who drop out of high school, Christle, Jolivette and Michael (2007) find, "are more likely to be unemployed, to earn less than those who graduate, to be on public assistance, and to end up in prison." The authors utilized both quantitative and qualitative procedures to examine dropout rates in Kentucky high schools and found that a number of school characteristics differentially relate to dropout rates, including:

a) school demographics, environment, policies, and disciplinary procedures;

b) classroom environment and instruction;

administrator characteristics, philosophies, attitudes, and behaviors;

d) staff characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors; and e) student characteristics and behaviors.

In a number or areas, the authors also note, schools which report low dropout rates differed considerably from schools which report high dropout rates. In addition to supporting previous school dropout literature, findings of this study offer a number of new insights. When students drop out of school, Christle, Jolivette and Michael (2007) insist, the action does not stem from impulse, but instead evolves from a cumulative process which includes unsuccessful school experiences. "...Academic failure, grade retention, absenteeism, behavior and discipline problems, and transfers from one school to another build on one another to eventually alienate the student from school." (Martin et al., 2002, cited by Christle, Jolivette and Michael, 2007). By identifying differences between high schools reporting high vs. low rates of dropout, the authors contend, contributes to the development of strategic actions schools can initiate to help engage students in school, while also helping ensure students succeed after they graduate.

Linking Learning

Stacy K. Dymond, Adelle Renzaglia, and Euljung Chun (2007), authors of the journal article, Elements of Effective High School Service Learning Programs That Include Students with and without Disabilities, note the value of linking Service Learning to academic and life skills curricula.

Although service learning is typically linked to the formal, explicit (i.e., academic) curriculum, emphasis should also be placed on making connections between service learning and life skills (i.e., the implicit curriculum). Job skills, social and interpersonal development, self-care, and safety are just some of the many life skills that can be addressed during service learning. Attention to life skills is particularly important for students with disabilities at the high school level, as the acquisition of these skills maximizes their independence and success in adulthood. The relative emphasis on academic and life skills should link directly to desired postschool outcomes (e.g., postsecondary education, employment, independent living, and community involvement). (Dymond, Renzaglia & Chun, 2007)

From a student's participation and ownership in service learning, he/she will be encouraged to:

share leadership with teachers/adults;

b. make choices about how to design and implement a project;

c. have decision-making power;

d. actively participate;

e. are expected to demonstrate autonomy;

f. assume responsibility;

g. participate in the construction of their own knowledge;

h. engage in tasks that challenge and stretch them cognitively;

i. apply new skills and knowledge;

j. use academic skills to provide service to the community;

k. practice communication skills;

l. learn to negotiate;

m. test new roles;

n. become learners and teachers;

o. assume ownership for the project and for their own learning;

p. assist in determining the need for the project;

q. serve as role models; and r. try out new experiences that are outside their comfort zone. (Dymond, Renzaglia & Chun, 2007)

Not All Learning Suits Every Student

In the study, "Education Is Important, but..." Young People outside of Schooling and the Finnish Policy of "Education Guarantee, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Ahola+Sakari%22Ahola, Sakari and www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Kivela+Suvi%22Kivela, Suvi (2007) purport that: "Instead of being an institution that 'disciplines and punishes,' the school should act as an agency of empowerment, allowing each young person to develop their strengths and find their 'own thing' ('oma juttu')

The authors also note concerns regarding students leaving school and dropping out. This study, which takes place in the Turku and Salo regions in south-west Finland, the authors contend, leads to further marginalization and exclusion of these young people from society in general.

The Finnish government, Ahola and Kivela (2007) report, currently has implemented a policy known as "the education guarantee." This plan stipulates that by 2008, 96% of students who complete compulsory education will continue without interruption in secondary education or in the 10th grade.

The study by Ahola and Kivela (2007) purposes to present preliminary results from a research project in progress during 2007, part of a development project, "VaSkooli." (Ahola & Kivela, 2007)

Groups targeted by the project include:

students in the final years of comprehensive school who have various kinds of difficulties at school; students who do not apply for a place in secondary education after finishing comprehensive school; those who apply for secondary education but do not find a study place; and students who have dropped out of secondary education or who are in danger of doing so. (Ahola & Kivela, 2007)

Approximately 310 youth were outside of education in the study area. Based on an opportunity sample, findings were analyzed from the first round of data collection during summer and autumn 2005, which included 124 returned questionnaires and 15 interviews. During the first round of data collection, participants of the target population were primarily contacted through other participating sub-projects and their resource centers. A more extensive survey was mailed to all those participating applicants, not securing a study position at the Turku Vocational Institute (N = 174). Along with these distributing these surveys, various project workers also dispersed an additional questionnaire. Workers also conducted in-depth interviews with students who agreed to be interviewed. (Ahola & Kivela, 2007)

Respondents' situations were reported to be relatively good, indicating, albeit, difficulties in reaching the most vulnerable youth. Findings included:

One-third had enrolled in the 10th grade and 24% were studying in regular upper secondary education.

Fifteen youngsters with an immigrant background were in special preparatory education, 14 had regular jobs or were in practical or apprenticeship training, and three had enrolled in some other short courses.

The number of those without any study place or work was 22 (18%).

The respondents valued education relatively highly; 90% said that they would need education in order to realize their dreams. (Ahola & Kivela, 2007)

Conclusions of their research, still in progress, Ahola & Kivela (2007) report remain on a quite general level. "Proposed measures in breaking the vicious circle of school exclusion include the redefinition of 'at-risk' youth and their social problems, reallocation of blame, investing in measures which prove to work and applying empowering inclusive policies." Learning at school, the researchers argue, does not suit every student. (Ahola & Kivela, 2007)

The Ability to Choose Their Own Courses

Marcia www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Gentry+Marcia%22Gentry, Scott J. www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Peters+Scott+J.%22Peters, and Rebecca L. Mann. (2007) report in their journal published qualitative study, Differences between General and Talented Students' Perceptions of Their Career and Technical Education Experiences Compared to Their Traditional High School Experiences, that career and technical education represents an important and understudied educational option for high school students. Using data from one prominent career and technical education (CTE) center, the authors explore how talented and general education students' part-time CTE experiences differed from experiences of traditional high school students.

Along with attending a traditional high school, secondary students in the study simultaneously attended the CTE center. As the authors conducted thorough interviews with students, a trend emerged: "students explicitly compared these two educational experiences. Both talented and general students commented favorably on their CTE experiences and negatively on their traditional high school experiences." (www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Gentry+Marcia%22Gentry, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Peters+Scott+J.%22Peters, and Mann, 2007)

The four major themes from participating students' comments included:

autonomy; effective, caring teachers; students with similar interests; and relevant content in an applied setting. (www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Gentry+Marcia%22Gentry, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Peters+Scott+J.%22Peters, and Mann, 2007)

Students reported they particularly appreciated the ability to choose their own courses and to determine the order or type of assignments, to self-pace the curriculum, and to experiment with a profession (autonomy). Students noted teachers who had high expectations and sought student's strengths, while simultaneously showing personal interest in the students. The students also recognized their exposure to other students who demonstrated mature and committed behaviors, as they took part in Career and Technical Student Organizations (students with similar interests). "Finally, the learning environment at the CTE center offered curricular connections to the profession, hands-on learning, and professional treatment of students in a job-like setting (relevant content in an applied setting)." (www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Gentry+Marcia%22Gentry, www.eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&_urlType=action&newSearch=true&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=au&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=%22Peters+Scott+J.%22Peters, and Mann, 2007)

Different Opportunities

The secondary study in Career and Technical Education Pathway Programs, Academic Performance, and the Transition to College and Career by Natasha Lekes, Debra D. Bragg, Jane W. Loeb, Catherine a. Oleksiw, Jacob Marszalek, Margaret Brooks-LaRaviere, Rongchun Zhu, Chloe C. Kremidas, Grace Akukwe, Hyeong-Jong Lee, and Lisa K. Hood (2007, p. viii): "showed that [career and technical education] CTE students took significantly more CTE courses and course credits than their matched counterparts. A significant difference was also noted between the groups on dual credit courses, with CTE students taking more than the non-CTE group."

In medium engaged schools, results showed math and science course-taking differed between the it and non-it groups, however, no differences were noted in high engaged schools. The authors attributed this finding to possibly be related to the high engaged schools' involvement in whole school reform. These schools encourage all students, including minorities, to integrate advanced academic courses into career pathway programs of study. Medium engaged schools, the authors found, offered opportunities to take math and science courses in association with CTE participation to high school it students, but not to non-it students. (Lekes, et al., 2007, p. ix) Also according to the follow-up survey associated with the secondary study, about half of the CTE students reported transitioning from high school to one of the target community colleges. By comparison, the postsecondary study showed a more modest transition rate of 33% for the high school it students and an equivalent percentage of Running Start students. The it students were more likely to pursue their career path than their matched non-it counterparts. Enrollment of high school EMT students at Southeast community college was slightly less than 30%, and no comparison to a non-participant group was possible because of data limitations. CTE students in both sites had a higher rate of self-reported intent to pursue a vocational certificate or degree than non-CTE students. (Lekes, et al., 2007, p. ix) Early vocational education courses emphasized a form of education separate and distinct from the general or college preparatory curriculum. (Lynch, 2000; Rojewski, 2002, cited by Lekes, et al., 2007, p. 3)

Today, however, as one it instructor in the study's Northwest site purports, vocational training helps students stay engaged in school. This instructor stressed the courses he teaches are "interesting, fun, relevant curriculum." He explained that being a vocational education instructor gives him the opportunity to enjoy teaching more because "it's all hands-on; it's stuff you're going to use in the real world." (Lekes, et al., 2007, p. 20)

Career and Technical Education

The following Courses of Career and Technical Education (CTE) content reflect categories of Specific Labor Market Preparation (SLMP), General Labor Market Preparation (GLMP), and Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS), following the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) identification of CTE Pathway Programs, Academic Performance, and the Transition to College and Career National Research Center for Career and Technical Education CTE courses. (Lekes, et al., 2007, p. 82)

Specific Labor Market Preparation

SLMP courses were divided into five codes to capture general SLMP, Information Technology (SLMP-it), Emergency Medical Technician training (EMT), Personal Care Assisting (PCA), and Other Health Related courses.

General SLMP

General SLMP courses -- i.e., those that were not EMT, PCA, SLMP it, or Other Health related -- belonged to one of the eleven SLMP categories of the SST. Courses covering content of the fields of Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Business, Marketing and Distribution, Public and Protective Services, Trade and Industry, Technology and Communications, Personal and Other Services, Food Service and Hospitality, and Child Care and Education were all coded as SLMP. As there was variation from school to school in the course content for same or similar course titles, courses were split according to course description, not course title.

SLMP-it

SLMP-it courses for the Northwest schools were determined by the Pierce County Careers Connection complete it course titles list (e.g., Web Design, CISCO, Programming, PC Hardware, Fundamentals of it, etc.). For the Southeast site, the same courses were categorized as SLMP-it according to course content (e.g., Business Computer Programming, Networking I, Digital Design, etc.).

EMT, PCA, and Other Health Related Courses

Courses coded as EMT were part of the Basic Certification Program Career Core Requirements (Fundamentals of Emergency Medical Care, Emergency Department Clinicals, and EMS Field Internship). Coded as PCA were the Patient Care Assisting I, II, and III and Patient Care Tech courses. The Other Health Related course category aimed to capture health related courses that students in the EMT and PCA track at the Southeast site may have taken that were related to their chosen CTE track. The code was applicable only to the Southeast schools where Health-related courses (EMT and PCA) were the CTE tracks of interest. Some examples of courses in the Other Health Related category were First Aid Safety, Advanced Health Explorations, Care and Prevention of Athletic Injuries, and Medical/Social Services Vocational Spanish. Courses that were the same or similar at the Northwest schools were included under the SLMP general code as it was the CTE track of interest there.

General Labor Market Preparation

The General Labor Market Preparation (GLMP) course category was divided into four categories to capture 1) general GLMP courses, 2) Information Technology (GLMP-it) courses, 3) Work-Based Learning (WBL) for WA, and 4) WBL for FL. Two different codes were assigned for WBL so comparisons could be made in WBL patterns between the Southeast and Northwest schools.

GLMP courses (that were not it or WBL) were those in the course guides described as a general introduction to a field (e.g., Marketing Essentials), general or specific career exploration courses (e.g., Careers, Technology Studies I), or training for skills needed in the general labor market (e.g., Business Systems and Technology).

Coded as GLMP-it were courses that taught basic computer use and skills enhancement (e.g., Practical Computer Skills, Typewriting/Keyboarding, Microsoft Applications, Digitools, CTE Pathway Programs, Academic Performance, and the Transition to College and Career National Research Center for Career and Technical Education. (Business Software Applications).

Categorized as WBL were courses that offered school credit for working on or off school premises, and internships (e.g., TA Career Center, Peer Tutor, TA Office Assistant, Ed. Careers 1 and 2, Business and Marketing Internship, Cooperative Work-Based Learning). (Lekes, et al., 2007, pp. 82-84

High School Reform Considerations

Thomas Toch, Craig D. Jerald, and Erin Dillon (2007), authors of the journal article, Surprise-High School Reform Is Working: High School Reform Has Now Been on the National Agenda Long Enough That We Can Begin Reaching Conclusions about the Effectiveness of Various Approaches to it. The Authors Report on the Strategies and Their Results Thus Far, Finding That Progress Is Indeed Possible, relate two conclusions evolving from current research on high school reform:

The American high school is not as unyielding to change as some individuals contends, as genuine change, as well as real progress, even though slow and difficult, are possible.

The most significant improvements in high schools evolve from combining strategies and solutions previously considered ideologically disparate and/or mutually exclusive. (Toch, Jerald & Dillon, 2007)

Limited research suggests that more rigorous curricula, along with tougher graduation standards may improve, not harm graduation rates. "Rigor and relevance are not engaged in a zero-sum tradeoff, but can actually work best in combination. Helping educators become more supportive of students is critical, but doing so produces more significant improvements in student learning when combined with high expectations and rigorous instruction." (Toch, Jerald & Dillon, 2007)

High school service learning programs (HSSLPs) cited in the literature, Toch, Jerald & Dillon (2007) report, were viewed as vital by HSSLPs stakeholders as it includes students with and without disabilities. During the study, the authors conducted focus groups with five inclusive HSSLPs. "Participants confirmed the importance of the elements cited in the literature, broadened their descriptions, and advocated increased flexibility and informality in addressing those elements in inclusive programs." (Toch, Jerald & Dillon, 2007) Findings suggest the need exists to:

link service learning to the academic and life skills curriculum, eliminate barriers to including students with disabilities, increase the inclusion of students with severe disabilities, embrace an inclusive philosophy, and engage in continuous program evaluation." Toch, Jerald & Dillon, 2007)