Youth withdrawal from sports: stress, lack of fun, and contextual factors

¶ … YOUTH'S DECISION to WITHDRAW FROM a SPORT

To Have Fun"

The number one reason a youth relates that he/she participates in a sport "is to have fun" Seefeldt, Ewing, and Walk (1992; cited by Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 21) purport. Motives which influence a youth's decision to participate in sports include a number of other reasons, often multiple and include the: "interplay of skill development, physical development, and social interaction" (Ibid.).

Regarding a youth's motives to participate in school-sponsored sports, the motive "to win" ranks number 8. Youth who participated in sports outside of those their school sponsored, albeit, did not even list the reason, "to win" as a reason they decided to participate in sports. Research repeatedly reveals that a number of youth withdraw from sport "because they experience 'too much stress' and 'not enough fun'" (Klint and Wiess, 1986' cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004). Drop-out rates for organized youth sport programs routinely average up to 35% each year (Gould and Petlichkoff, 1988; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004) Consequently, understanding how youth can better cope with/in competitive sport experiences proves to be a significant study (Crocker, Hoar, McDonough, Kowalski, and Neifer; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004). A youth's decision to withdraw from sports may arise from, or partially relate to numerous contextual and performance stressors, which may include but not limited to: a: excessive amounts of pressure; b: conflicts with the coach/coach criticisms of player; c: dearth of fun; d: excessive emphasis on winning, e: fear of being hurt or injured; f: experiencing conflicts with members on opposing teams; g: making repeated physical/mental errors, h:

parent/s exerting pressure by being over-involved and/or expressing unreasonable expectations for the youth to succeed (Anshel and Delany, 2001; Crocker and Isaak, 1997; Gould and Eklund, 1996; Goyen and Anshel, 1998: Klint and Weiss, 1986; Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 1984; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004). Along with the intent "to have fun," researchers purport youth possess deeper motives for their participation in sports. (Gould and Petlichkoff, 1988; cited by Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 21). In a similar sense, this researcher notes and reports in this literature review chapter, that a myriad of "reasons" may contribute to a youth deciding to withdraw from a sport.

Hedstrom and Gould (2004, p. 23) cite Seefeldt, Ewing, and Walk, (1992) to relate the following four "reasons" youth give for their withdrawal from sport activities.

Youth lost interest in the sport's activity.

The sport and/or participating in it was no longer fun.

The youth felt as if their coach was not a good instructor and/or "played favorites." 4. The youth wanted to participate in some other activity (could include a job) or no longer had time for engaging in the sport (Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 23).

Another researcher relates similar reasons for youth withdrawing from sports.

While the frequency of the specific motives given for withdrawal vary among studies, a number of reasons such as conflicts of interest, lack of success or improvement, lack of playing time, dislike of the coach or boredom appear in the majority of reports (Weiss; cited by Molinero, Salguero, Tuero, Alvarez and Marquez, 2006).

The National Council of Youth Sports reports that than 44 million children participated in youth and high school sports during 2007, "12 million more than in 1997." But according to a study by the National Alliance for Youth Sports, nearly 75% of approximately 20 million youth sports participants quit by the age of 13" (Lenzi, 2008, ¶ 8).

Ten of the most frequently selected reasons related in one study of youth's participation in sport activities included the following:

To have fun;

To do something I'm good at to improve my skills

To stay in shape

To get exercise

For the excitement of competition

For the challenge of competition

To learn new skills

To play as part of a team

To go to a higher level of competition, (Seefeldt,1993, p. 56)

Seefeldt (1993, p. 61) states: "The reasons that youth gave for dropping out of sport were the antithesis of those given for participating in sport."

Youth ages 10-16 reported "not having fun" and "no longer interested in the sport" as the major reason they decided to withdraw from a sport. Youth 17 and 18 years-old related the identify of reasons, however they added: "wanting to get a job" to their list of reasons for withdrawing from sport.

Younger athletes, who generally withdrew from non-school sponsored sports noted reasons for their withdrawal to include: problems with older children; being bored at practice; not liking the way a uniform fit or looked on them; other players playing too rough; coach did not allow them to play often; conflicts with teammates or feeling of a team members did not like them; experienced time/energy conflict due to other sports' demands; not appropriate sport for age group. In another study noted by Lenzi (2008), reasons for withdrawal from sports by youth included:

Other sports took too much time;

Took job, giving less time;

Did not enjoy it anymore;

Was not good enough;

Too much pressure to perform well;

Parents discouraged me from continuing;

Too expensive;

Injury played a role;

Coach was the reason;

No longer an opportunity;

Spend more time on non-sport activities.

Reasons" this Researcher Relates for this literature review, this researcher relates "reasons" youth decide to withdraw from sports under the following four categories. Some of the reasons may include: a: Youth lost interest and/or no longer considered sport fun; b: Coach and/or team influence; c: Psychological, physical and/or emotional reasons; d. Familial matters (includes time).

2.2 Youth Lost Interest or No Longer Considered Sport Fun as "to have fun," as Seefeldt, Ewing, and Walk (1992; cited by T (Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 21) note, constitutes the primary reason, among numerous reasons, youth relate for their participation in sports, it naturally follows that when the sport is no longer fun, the youth may withdraw. Numerous studies exploring youth sport attrition have many youth who drop out are either participating in other sports or plan to continue the same sport at a later time (Gould, Feltz, Horn, and Weiss,1982; Klint and Weiss, 1986; cited by Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 23). Researchers we salmon youth sport attrition note it vital to "distinguish between those athletes who drop out of all sports and those that go on to sample others." Gould and Petlichkoff (1988 cited by Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 23 refer to these variances as "sport-specific and domain-general forms of sport withdrawal." Gould, cited by Holt and Mandigo (2004) states: "One social arena where children may experience psychosocial stress is via participation in organized youth sport." Descriptive research reveals youths base their motives for participating in various sports feelings they experience such as " competence (e.g., learning new skills), affiliation (e.g., making friends), competition (e.g., to win), and fun (e.g., for excitement)" (Weiss, 2000; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004). Along with positive alluring motives youth experience, however, a number of negative outcomes also link to youth sport participation. This includes decreased fun and satisfaction (Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 1984; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004); physical injury (Smith, Smoll, and Ptacek, 1990; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004); deteriorated performance (Gould, Eklund, Petlichkoff, Peterson, and Bump, 1991; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004); burnout" (Smith, 1986; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004).

Ultimately, these un-fun factors frequently contribute to a youth deciding to withdraw from sport" (Petlichkoff, 1996; cited by Holt and Mandigo, 2004).

Teachable Moments in Sports

Lenzi (2008, para. 4) contends that, whether considered fun or not, "every practice and every game is a teachable moment," however, simultaneously poses the questions: "Will we help raise productive members of society or will we raise athletes? Or will we teach, 'a team is a place where parents go crazy?'" One vital lesson from youth participating in sports, Lenzi stresses, includes value of being part of a team. As youth are involved, they also learn the value of ensuring things get done right.

Martens (1996; cited by Brady, 2004, p. 48) argued that a number of the practices currently utilized and in youth sports, turns youth away from instead of to the continuing practice of physical activity.

To redress this situation, he proposed two principles that are germane to continued participation in sports: the "Self-Worth Principle" and the "Fun Principle." The Self-Worth Principle encompasses the need to feel competent and worthy and to experience success. Martens stated that being competent in the physical domain was important and that positive experiences, accompanied by both the internal feedback of accomplishment and the external recognition of success, enhance competence and feelings of worthiness. However, a number of practices result in lowered self-worth and feelings of incompetence: pushing athletes into activities that are developmentally too advanced, over-emphasizing competition, shifting the emphasis from learning to performing skills, failing to recognize small steps in progress, carping about the gap between current and desired skill levels, comparing players with those who are developmentally more advanced, and openly criticizing players and causing embarrassment for inadequate performance in front of peers and parents.

The Fun Principle stated that as "we take the fun out of physical activities, we take the kids out of them" (Martens, 1996, p. 306). Martens said that learning should be enjoyable and that when winning is pursued in the extreme, it produces behaviors that destroy children's self-worth and rob them of fun. However, adults frequently violate this principle by over organizing, constantly instructing and evaluating, over drilling and routinizing the learning of skills, replacing unstructured play with calisthenics, and using physical activity as a form of punishment. Martens noted that the irony in youth sports is that "we turn young people off of the very thing we want to turn them on to" (p. 309). If lifelong participation in physical activity is the goal, then the emphasis should shift from the outcome to the quality of experiences, according to Martens. (Brady, 2004, p. 48)

Morale Considerations

Coaches cited a youth's negative self-talk and/or the practice of him/her berating his/her teammates when one makes a mistakes during competitions as indicators of low team morale. Scanlan et al. (1993; cited by Gilbert, Gilbert and Trudel, 2001, p. 29) note the following coaching strategies that when utilized, help combat low team morale and possibly deter youth from withdrawing from the sport:

Coaches record developmental statistics for their athletes, such as number of passes, number of shots on net, or number of positional rule infractions. Such statistics provide objective measures of the athletes' progress that do not depend on the outcome of the game. For example, only a few athletes will record goals during a soccer match, but everyone on the team can record a pass or a shot on net. This strategy gives all athletes (regardless of skill or level of personal development) an opportunity to experience success in sports. It can also have important positive consequences for their self-esteem and level of enjoyment, which in turn influence their desire to continue participating in sports (Scanlan et al., 1993). (Gilbert, Gilbert and Trudel, 2001, p. 29)

Another effective strategy for improving team morale is to schedule social events for the team (e.g., pizza and movie nights, camping trips, visits to local amusement parks). These types of team gatherings can help promote team cohesion, a sense of affiliation, and a positive team atmosphere, all of which contribute to participant enjoyment and motivation (Boyd et al., 1997; Petlichkoff, 1993; Smith and Smoll, 1997).

Almost all coaches in this study by Gilbert, Gilbert and Trudel (2001, p. 29) related concerns regarding "sudden, unexplainable decreases in individual or team performance," described as a "lull" or "drop" in performance.

These decreases, which may also may influence a use decision to withdraw from a sport, usually evolve from challenges with individual techniques and/or team tactics. Coaches usually utilized the strategies address these problems, noting that the athlete is not physically able to properly execute a particular skill, or he/she is in a mental rut and cannot exert the necessary concentration and/or effort. To discourage youth from withdrawing from the sport, coaches routinely utilized different strategies to improve the youth's skill development and enhance his/her motivation and interest. This strategy proposes to permit athletes to temporarily get out of routine training procedures that the youth may consider to be too routine and/or no longer fun. In an ego-goal perspective, coaches, parents, and teachers may defined success "normative criteria, interpersonal competition, and the demonstration of superiority over others."

Contrary to this concept, in a Mastery Motivational Climate, " the criteria for success in a task-goal perspective are self-referenced, with the predominant emphasis on improvement, learning, and skill mastery." Nicholls (1989; cited by Brady, 2004, p. 48) argued that whether a youth being task or ego oriented evolved from a combination of the following three related factors:

dispositional differences, situational characteristics, and developmental differences.

Youth's Disposition

According to Dweck and Leggett (1988; cited by Brady, 2004, p. 48), a youth's disposition, noted as a "proneness" or individual-difference variables, impact the probability of him/her adopting a particular goal perspective. Situational factors, on the other hand, reportedly possess the potential to alter probabilities. Treasure and Roberts (1994; cited by Brady, 2004, p. 48) additionally suggest that as youth equate ability with effort, they tend to be task oriented. They may become more ego oriented, however, as they mature and acquire a more discriminating perception of their abilities. "This increased differentiation is mediated by the interactional patterns and reward systems of significant others (coaches, parents, and teachers)" (Brady, 2004, p. 48).

2.4 Psychological, Physical and/or Emotional Reasons

Other Potential Reasons Youth May Decide to Withdrawal from a Sport

Other potential reasons for youth to withdraw from a particular sport include possible negative effects from port specialization. These include, but may not be limited to: "physical and psychological burnout, loss of social contacts through other sports, loss of transferable athletic skills, and loss of the influence of coaches of other sports" (Hecimovich, 2004, p. 26). Athletes routinely experience negative stresses from gymnastics, as well as from their participation in a number of other sports, as they "have to" invest great amounts of their time to the sport. In turn, these athletes experience social isolation, as well as a dearth of opportunities for social development. Negative stretchers, however, are not exclusive to gymnasts. All youth who participate in a single sport all year are subject to this problem.

Three possible negative effects that may evolve from of sport specialization include: a:

physiological/physical; b: psychological; c: sociological. Contemporary educators and professionals, as well as other adults, who coach/lead youth in sport activities, routinely encounter the four following challenges:

declining participation levels at certain ages, especially for girls;

the prominence of untrained coaches at both the community and school levels;

the pressure by adults to have youths specialize earlier in a sport, resulting in year-round seasons and the probability of earlier attrition or burnout; and the need for more opportunities for at-risk youth. (Hecimovich, 2004, p. 26)

Factors Contributing to Females' Decisions Regarding Sports Participation

Females routinely report experiencing negative incidents in sport activities, including physical and emotional trauma, that they stated contributed to their withdrawing from participation in sports (Gilbert, 2001; cited by Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 24). Decisions you can make regarding whether to withdraw or continue their participation in sports, according to Elling and Knoppers (2005), possess the potential to integrate or ignore the differentiating effects of sport. A variety of complex personal, social-cultural and contextual factors, albeit, appear to influence these decisions. The various inclusion/exclusion dimensions relating to sport involvement can be categorized as: a: "structural inclusion and exclusion referring to (non) participation"; b: "cultural or symbolic inclusion and exclusion through social (normative) images"; c: "affective inclusion and exclusion through friendship networks." (Ibid.)

Adolescents Considerations

As a youth enters adolescence, this denotes of time in his/her life when he/she begins to make his/her own decisions and choose between various value orientations, as well as whether or not to participate in sport and/or other leisure activities. In a youth's search for his/her own identity, he/she regularly detaches him/her self in different ways from his/her parents; instead succumbing to peer pressure/favor. At this stage in the life of a youth, he/she also increases his/her awareness "natural' physical differences and of gendered and ethnic identities (e.g., Balk, 1995; Scraton, 1987; cited by Elling and Knoppers, 2005), and in turn, "explicitly and implicitly identify with some groups and subcultures and distance themselves from others through their leisure activities and choice of sports (Bartko and Eccles, 2003; Youniss et al., 1994; cited by Elling and Knoppers, 2005).

Girls particularly, during their puberty many decide to withdraw from sports and choose other types of fitness regimes and/or other free time activities (Breedveld, 2003; cited by Elling and Knoppers, 2005).

Empirical Studies Find Empirical studies repeatedly find that youth who participate in sport display/experience fewer behavior problems than youth who withdraw from sports or do not participate in sport activities. One major American study, completed by Jeziorski (1994; cited by Donaldson and Ronan, 2006)"found that participants in sports earned better grades, behaved better in the classroom, had fewer behavior problems outside the classroom, dropped out less frequently, and attended school on a more regular basis with fewer unexcused absences as compared to nonparticipants." In addition, when compared to youth who participated in sports, Jeziorski reported that it appeared youth who did not participate in sports more likely dropped out of school, more likely use/abused drugs, more likely became parents in their teen years; more likely smoked cigarettes; more likely broke the law and were arrested. Segrave and Hastad (1982; cited by Donaldson and Ronan, 2006) similarly contended that a negative relationship between nonparticipation in sport activities and delinquency exists in youth during their adolescent and college years. In fact, the study completed by Segrave and Hastad related increased sports activity to youth involved in lower levels of delinquency. A number of other studies also appear to confirm the connection between exercise are reduced behavioral problems (Brown and Siegel, 1988; cited by Donaldson and Ronan, 2006).

When Gruber (1986; cited by Donaldson and Ronan, 2006) explored the impact of children and adolescent physical activity on their self-esteem through a meta-analysis of 27 studies, he found stronger evidence revealing a "consistent relationship between an increased number of sports and amount of time spent in them reduced externalizing and societal behavior problem" Youths who participated. In more formal sports and for a longer periods of time "reported significantly lower levels of delinquent behavior, aggression, and peer-related problems." The youth involved in sports also showed notably lower anxiety levels, as well as reportedly experiencing fewer depression-linked problems, we and as compared to youth who did not participate in or withdrew from sports. These particular findings confirm other numerous some studies which related a negative relationship exists between sport participation and problem behaviors (Steptoe and Butler, 1996; Jeziorski, 1994; cited by Donaldson and Ronan, 2006).

Burnout" or Overtraining Syndrome

With more children becoming involved in organized and recreational athletics, incidences of overuse, a common etiologic factor that contributes to injuries in the pediatric and adolescent athlete, increase. A number of children who participate in one sport a may also simultaneously participate on multiple teams, as well as participate in sports all throughout the year. In turn, they may over train, which can lead to burnout. Burnout, according to Brenner (2007, ¶ 1) can produce a detrimental effect on a youth. Parental pressure constitutes one factor to overtraining. Brenner identifies and counsels youth at-risk children for burnout, along with their families. Literature describes burnout and adult athletes, however, a dearth of information regarding this subject can be found, as it applies to youth and their pitches a patient in sports. The overtraining syndrome, (Brenner, 2007, ¶ 6) explains, can be defined as a "series of psychological, physiologic, and hormonal changes that result in decreased sports performance." He identifies several traditional manifestations as "chronic muscle or joint pain, personality changes, elevated resting heart rate, and decreased sports performance." A youth are too spread in a sport, two experiences burnout, may also display signs of "fatigue, lack of enthusiasm about practice or competition, or difficulty with successfully completing usual routines."

Parents in adults should recognize burnout as a serious scenario and reduce training when it occurs. Instead of overexerting him/her self and focusing only on one sport and training routine, athletes need to make a point to be participate in a variety of activities. Brenner (2007) suggests the following guidelines to prevent overtraining/burnout, and a youth deciding to withdrawal from sport:

Keep workouts interesting, with age-appropriate games and training, to keep practice fun.

Take time off from organized or structured sports participation 1 to 2 days per week to allow the body to rest or participate in other activities.

Permit longer scheduled breaks from training and competition every 2 to 3 months while focusing on other activities and cross-training to prevent loss of skill or level of conditioning.

Focus on wellness and teaching athletes to be in tune with their bodies for cues to slow down or alter their training methods. (Brenner, 2007, ¶ 7-8)

Hecimovich (2004) points out that a number of youth sports who experience overtraining syndrome completely withdraw from sports. A youth too embarrassed to quit or pressured to continue, however, "may incur a sports-related self-injury in order to leave gracefully." Youth to withdraw from the sport more likely live sedentary lifestyles when they become adults.

In addition, youth excelling in a sport earlier in their lives may experience problems later in life with coping with other challenges they face, if they withdrawal from sport.

Injuries When youth train and/or practice excessively in sports, this may contribute to overuse injuries, such as: "tendinopathy or tendinosis, apophysitis, stress fractures," Hecimovich (2004, p.31) notes. Some youth, predisposed to repetitive stress injuries, may have to contend with: "swimmer's shoulder, tennis player's elbow, and runner's stress fractures," a few of the many potential problems youth who participate in sports regularly experience.

Consequently, to more likely avoid these concerns, youth need to invest their efforts in a sport when they can readily participate in repetitive cycles. Along with the potential for physical injury, other possible negative effects of sport participation which may lead to youth deciding to withdraw from the sport include:

physical and psychological burnout, loss of social contacts through other sports, loss of transferable athletic skills, and loss of the influence of coaches of other sports. (Hecimovich, 2004, p.31)

One study of school age children reported you regularly reported the following three variables, which predict physical activity, and in turn, a youth's participation for withdrawal from sports:

Time after school to participate,

Interest in physical education classes, and Support from family. (Sallis, Prochaska, Taylor, Hill, and Geraci, 1999; cited by Hedstrom and Gould (2004, p. 17)

2.5 Familial Matters (includes time)

Hedstrom and Gould (2004, p. 24) cite Seefeldt, Ewing, and Walk (1992) to reveal other reasons youth decide to withdraw related to demographics the found from further exploration and their studies:

African-American and Hispanic-American youth rated too much emphasis placed on winning, needing time to study, and the coach being an ineffective teacher higher than Caucasian youth.

Males reported the effect of win-loss record on their decision more than females.

Females rated social aspects of sports (relationships with teammates, peer comparison) as more of an influence on their decision than males (Seefeldt, Ewing, and Walk, 1992). (Hedstrom and Gould, 2004, p. 24)

How much a parent involves him/her self in a youth's sport reflects the relative significance he/she attributes to the sports domain. Parental involvement varies from parents watching their youth from the sidelines, to some parents actively running programs. Hellstedt (1987; cited by Sukhi and White, 1999, p. 162) points out that that: "parental involvement can be placed on a continuum ranging from underinvolved to overinvolvement. Overinvolved parents have an excessive amount of involvement in the athletic experiences and success of their children." dearth in research regarding the influence of parents possess on youth's motives to participate in sport.

Hellstedt (1990; cited by Sukhi and White, 1999, p. 162) explored parental roles' impact on a youths' sport and contends that the youth may perceive his/her parental influence may be perceived as either positive or negative. "Perceived negative responses may lead to competitive anxiety, parent-child conflict, discouragement, burnout, and withdrawal from sport" (Hellstedt, 1990; Passer, 1984; cited by Sukhi and White, 1999, p. 162). On the other hand, parental positive reactions have been linked to youth experiencing more enjoyment in their sport participation (Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 1986).

Mastery Motivational Climate number of researchers advocate that Ames's (1992) concept of a mastery climate be adopted prior to enhancing youth competency in sport and maximizing sports' benefit for participating youth (Duda, 1996; Roberts, 1992; Solmon, 1996; cited by Brady, 2004, p. 48). In effort based, mastery climates, youth receive awards when they demonstrate effort, learning, and improvement. "Such climates have been positively associated with greater levels of enjoyment, effort, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and perceived competence, and inversely related to levels of tension and anxiety (Kavussanu and Roberts, 1996; Ntoumanis and Biddle, 1999; cited by Brady, 2004, p. 48). Numerous sports environment factors can relate mastery-related cues, including performance evaluation methods; goal setting types; methods utilized for reporting players; coach's reactions to winning, losing, and errors; ways teams schools/coaches choose teams, along with how they make substitutions; and ultimately by "emphasizing sportsmanship over winning."

The implementation of a Mastery Motivational Climate, in turn, may help a youth decide not to withdraw from participating in a sport.

Researchers encourage that more research be conducted regarding ways significant others influence youth participation motivation and attrition processes of young athletes (Brown, 1985; Brustad, 1992; Lewko and Greendorfer, 1988; Weiss and Chaumeton, 1992; cited by Sukhi and White, 1999, p. 162). In addition, Brustad (1992; cited by Sukhi and White, 1999, p. 162) a specifically "proposed the integration of socialization influences, particularly parental behaviors, into the study of children's sport motivation." Other researchers have suggested the value of sport psychology research being linked with sport socialization in studying competitive stress, particularly when the stress links to and/or evolves from familial and/or and coaches' influence (Greendorfer, 1992; cited by; cited by Sukhi and White, 1999, p. 162).

When Sports Are Not Fun Anymore

Wann (cited by Lenzi, 2008, ¶ 8), a psychology professor at Murray State in Kentucky, a board of director member for the National Alliance for Youth Sports, sums up the "theory" for kids making the decision to withdrawal from sport. "At that point it's not fun anymore," he purports. As numerous youth do at one time or another participate in sports, and as research reveals, coaches/leaders can impact lives of millions of individuals, including parents, through youth sports, this researcher purports that fun, along with other vital life lessons, be routinely incorporated into sports participate in. Perhaps in turn, more youth will decide not to withdraw from an activity that does, in fact, help better prepare them for competition they will later experience in their lives.

Determining reasons why youth decide to withdraw from sports, this researcher contends, and ways to encourage them to participate in sports and other forms of physical activity constitutes a critical current concern. This issue deserves ongoing consideration, particularly, as numerous researchers note, as an increase in youth withdrawal from sports, accompanied by increased inactivity, in turn contributes to health risks to youth.

Brady (2004), albeit, compares sport to a double-edged sword.

Swung in the right direction, the sword can have tremendously positive effects, but swung in the wrong direction it can be devastating. The sword is held by adults who supervise children's sports.

Whether sport is constructive or destructive in the psychological development of young children greatly depends on the values, education and skills of those adults. (Brady, 2004, p. 42)

As the end of this literature review chapter leads into the next chapter of this study, this researcher purports that the information/data, similar to Brady's contention, serves as a double-edged sword. With this researcher using the analysis to "bat" the researched material in the right direction, the ultimate results from this study effort will, as this researcher expects, hit home to the intended audience with positive results.