Recreation and Leisure Forest Health

Recreation and Leisure

Forest health and restoration

There is a plethora of evidence from studies on environmental research to suggest that healthy forests are of vital importance to the balance in nature and ultimately for human existence. Forests not only provide clean water but also "...support livelihoods, shelter wildlife and help maintain a stable climate" (Fire and Conservation). The last mentioned aspect, the maintenance of a stable climate, has in recent years become a central focus of ecological and environmental concerns in the light of global warming.

However, while forests are undeniably important in terms of the larger environment they are also at risk from various natural and manmade phenomena. A good example is the continual threat of fire. On the other hand forests depend on natural fires in order to, "...clear excess vegetation that, if built up, threatens forest health" (Fire and Conservation). In many instances this natural requirement has not been observed and "...the perceived danger of forest fires has led to nearly a century of fire exclusion in America's forests, creating an unhealthy and volatile situation" (Fire and Conservation). This example is indicative of the precarious balance that has to be maintained in the maintenance of the natural ecology of the forest. It also points to the crucial importance of an ecological understanding in the maintenance of the earth's forests.

The above discussion leads to the main issues that form the central thesis of this paper. The first point is that forest ecosystems are "...complex, diverse, and dynamic assemblages of plants, animals, and micro-organisms" (Ross et al.). The second point is that these are delicate environmental systems that require an in-depth understanding in order to be maintained and to ensure that forests recover from periodic disturbances. A central thesis that will be explored is that a healthy forest environment and good forest management is essential in that forests are important for the general environment. Secondly, maintenance and restoration of the forest systems in the United States and other areas of the world is directly related to the health of the global environment and related ecosystems.

Literature review

There are many articles and studies that provide a general overview of the problem of forestry restoration and the history of this problem. A succinct but instructive article in this regard is Science in the Treetops: It's Home to a Vast Collection of Plants and Animals and Acts as the Planet's Lungs, Yet We Know Surprisingly Little about the Forest Canopy. Christian Amodeo Heads into the Treetops to Meet Some of the Scientist Studying the Final Terrestrial Frontier (2003). This article presents a general overview of the reason why forestry restoration is of such importance to the understanding of the environment and environmental balances in the world. The article focuses on the relatively unknown aspect of the forest canopy and the way that it interacts with the larger environment. "The forest canopy -- the term given to the aggregated crowns of trees in a forest -- is thought to host up to 40 per cent of all species, of which ten per cent could be unique to the forest roof..." (Amodeo, 2003). The study also adds the important point that the canopy is the "... richest, least known, most threatened habitat on Earth," (Amodeo, 2003).

An extremely important aspect that is also discussed by Amodeo is the interrelationship and interdependence between the forest and the other environmental elements and ecologies. As the author stresses,

The canopy represents the largest land-based interface with rite atmosphere -- 90 per cent of the world's biomass meets the atmosphere there -- so it's vital for us to understand its role in global climate and what effect changes in climate might have on it. (Amodeo, 2003).

Aspects such as the way that problems with the imbalance in the forest affects poverty, adds emphasis to the need for maintenance and restoration. The article also notes that, "Rates of forest clearing remain appallingly high, with an area almost twice the size of Northern Ireland being cleared in Brazil alone each year" (Amodeo, 2003). The authors therefore stress that action is needed in forest maintenance in order to prevent an ecological and environmental decline. The article also provides a very useful and instructive overview of the knowledge that has been acquired about the forest canopy and its importance to the general environment.

An article by Ross et al. entitled, Forest Health Restoration in South-Central Alaska: A Problem Analysis, provides a good example of the particular health problems in forests and the way that these can forests can be restored and maintained. What is also important about this article is that it refers to the central thesis of this paper, in that it shows how forest systems are affected by other environmental variables. In other words, this refers to studies that show how a healthy forest environment is an essential part of the larger ecosystem and that if forestry management is not carried out this can effect other aspects of the environment that are linked to the forests.

The study refers to a large spruce beetle outbreak that negatively impacted trees on millions of acres of forest land in south-central Alaska in the 1990s. The study also shows how, "The tree mortality is affecting every component of the ecosystem, including the socioeconomic culture dependent on the resources of these vast forests" (Ross et al.) Consequently, the research paper outlines ways in which resource management structures have developed different methods of restoring the forest to a more natural state of balance. The authors state that, "The tasks of land managers are integrative and multidisciplinary and involve many science-related issues" (Ross et al.).

More importantly, the article also deals in detail with the way that the threat to the forests has a major biological impact on the larger ecosystem and that this in turn affects the communities that are dependent on the forests for their health and livelihood. (Ross et al.) Furthermore, the study notes that the "...current levels of tree mortality, with or without wildfire, may significantly reduce the quality of the watersheds on which some of the most productive fisheries in the world depend " (Ross et al.). This is again indicative of the importance of maintaining and restoring these forests. "These changes likely will affect aquatic communities including the anadromous fish that are a major part of the economy of Alaska" (Ross et al.).

The article also explores the various management solutions that have been used to deal with this problem. This includes changing the behavior of the beetle population by using two types of pheromones.

A journal article that sums up the debate about forest management in the contemporary world is Value Orientation and Forest Management: The Forest Health Debate by Abrams et al. (2005). This article deals with the extent to which the necessity for forest management is accepted by the authorities and the public. This is an important issue and relates to the topic of maintenance and restoration in relation to the awareness of problems and complexities in the undertaking of restoration projects. The article refers to the fact that while there seems to be an awareness of the necessity for forest restoration and management in the media and by various ecologically aware institutions, the way that the public perceives this issue has to a large extent not been studied and documented.

However, the article refers to the various surveys of public opinion in the Oregon and Washington area; which suggests that active management and maintenance of forest regions was comparatively well accepted and understood by those surveyed. However, the study also found that there was a certain degree of disagreement among the respondents of the survey as to the specific management practices within specific forest conditions. This was also related to the perception of causative factors. It was found that respondents who were ecologically conscious tended to blame human beings for the forest problems, while those respondents who were more economically inclined tended to see the causes of these problems as a result of natural factors and not as a result of manmade processes and activities. These findings suggest that the issue of forestry management and restoration is linked to the specific contexts and prior views and dispositions.

A useful article that provides insight into the debate about forest restoration and the history of this topic is the Once and Future Forest: A Guide to Forest Restoration Strategies by Mary Rose Navarro (1999). This article refers to the fact that the history of forest conservation and restoration in recent years has been negative in terms of positive and proactive management. This is an article that looks at the realities of the present situation and suggests various compromises between the stakeholders that could lead to an improved management situation.

The article refers to some alarming statistics, such as figures from the World Wildlife Fund which indicate that as little as two percent of the original old-growth forests remaining in the United States, and that this is also under threat. The author also refers to the fact that the United Sates uses wood at a very high rate compared to other regions of the world, which also impacts on the available forests and emphasizes the need for more intensive forest management. Furthermore, the article also discusses how legislation in the United States has reduced the extent of deforestation in the country. Despite these attempts at reducing the economic impact on the forests, the article provides some extensive and alarming statistics about the numbers and types of trees that have been eradicated in America alone.

This study goes on to discuss various solutions to the present impasse between the environmental groups who oppose logging and unmanaged economic activity and the wood and logging industry. This, state the authors, would involve a compromise between these two groups. The author suggests that on the one hand the environmentalists have to realize that they cannot oppose all logging activity and the lumber industry has to become more conscious of the issue of sustainability and forest management.

The last article in this literary review is an important publication by the World Wildlife Fund entitled, Integrating Forest Protection, and Management and Restoration at a Landscape Scale (2004). This paper attempts to show that "... The forest targets - on protection, management and restoration - can be combined into a coherent programme and delivered at a landscape scale in a priority ecoregion" (Aldrich et al. 2004). In essence what the paper attempts to show is that the elements of forest management and forest landscape restoration can be integrated into a coherent management plan. A central point of this study is that the restoration and management of forests can only be achieved when the other concomitant factors are also taken into account; such as poverty alleviation, human well-being and various legitimate forms of social and economic development. (Aldrich et al. 2004). In other words, as the authors state,

Conservation does not take place divorced from issues relating to human well-being, and those involved in conservation are usually also concerned about social justice and sustainable development. The approach therefore also considers where these different but overlapping interests can best be integrated into a multifunctional landscape. (Aldrich et al. 2004).

This point-of-view relates to the central thesis of this paper, in that it stresses that the restoration and management of forests must also take into account related issues and this often necessitates compromise and negotiation. The paper goes on to discuss the various theoretical and practical steps that are needed to integrate these three main aspects into a coherent and workable management strategy. This is intended to facilitate a balanced combination of protection, management and restoration which will provide not only ecological but also social benefits as well.