Women in Leadership: The Characteristics

Women in Leadership: The Characteristics and Advantage of Women

Women in Leadership

Women in Leadership: Obstacles to the Characteristics and Advantages of Women

The issue of women in leadership has been a focus of debate and discussion across many disciplines in recent years. This debate is also linked to topics such women's rights and gender inequalities in modern society. These issues have been engendered by the fact that there is a gross disparity in terms of gender when it comes to leadership roles in modern corporations and organization. The contention that underlies this debate is the marginalization of women and the prejudiced perception of gender. Many critics note that these disparities are a direct result of perceptions and stereotyped that emanate from a male-centered and patriarchal word view.

This is turn has resulted in a deconstruction and questioning of gender disparities, especially in the light of modern theories of leadership that tend to emphasize a more transformational as opposed to a transactional model of effective leadership in an interconnected and interdependent modern world. Many critics have consequently questioned the authoritarians and male -- oriented view of leadership and suggested that women have qualities and advantages that make then at least as effective in leadership roles as men

This view suggests women have certain qualities that deserve greater recognition and acceptance in terms of leadership potential. This is not to suggest that there are distinct and set male and female stereotyped, but rather that women posses advantageous qualities that need to recognized to as greater degree in various leadership roles and situations

Furthermore, one also has to bear in mind that modern management culture no longer advocates the rigid patriarchal model of leadership. There is much more emphasis on the promotion of the flexible leadership styles. That promotes aspect such as individualism and an introspective leadership model, which concurs with many studies of female leadership attributes. This leads to the assertion that a more comprehensive understanding of leadership, especially the women's role in the leadership, will have a positive impact on the effective running of business and organizational structures and the fair and optimum distribution of human resources.

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 2

Chapter One

Introduction 5

Statement of Problem 6

Purpose of Study 7

Research Objective 7

Significance of the Study 7

Chapter Two

Literature review 9

The Situation of Women in Leadership Roles 9

Obstacles and Barriers 12

Female Qualities and Advantages 13

Chapter Three

Research Methodology 15

Limitations of the Study 15

Chapter Four

Results and Analysis 16

Discrimination and Advancement 16

The Social Construction of Reality 18

Female Leadership: Qualities and Advantages 20

Changing Views of Leadership and the Need for Diversity 23

Biological and Other Female Leadership Attributes 26

Chapter Five

References 33

Appendix ..41

Women in Leadership: Obstacles to the Characteristics and Advantages of Women

Chapter One

Introduction

There is little doubt that if questioned most people would associate leadership roles in commerce and politics with a male image or name. This is a socialized response which indicates the prevalence of certain prejudicial stereotypes in society. However, in recent years this stereotype and the stereotype of the women as only a support for the male leader has been deconstructed and questioned. There has also emerged a strong view, evidenced by modern examples and studies, that women are as good, if not better, leaders as men. Despite this, the hegemony of patriarchal attitude towards women in business and other areas of society still tend to persist.

The marginalization of women in business is well-known as and characterized by the term and phenomenon known as the "glass ceiling." The term glass ceiling refers to the various obstacles that prevent upward mobility for women in the workplace and the corporate world (Madden, 2000). This term owes its origins to a reference to artificial barriers to female advancement and was first mentioned in a 1985 Wall Street Journal article (Glass Ceiling, 2004). The glass ceiling is aptly defined as "…an invisible barrier that determines the level to which a woman or other member of a demographic minority can rise in an organization." (Glass Ceiling: definition) This concept will also form a central fulcrum of the discussion in this dissertation.

One of the central questions that this study will attempt to address is the reason or reasons why women have been limited with regard to leadership roles on society. This question is linked to a number of complex issues, such as the qualities expected of a leader and how this relates to female abilities and aptitude. In essence, many critics note that women in fact have qualities that make them extremely competent leaders -- although these qualities may differ from the stereotypical norm of the way that a leader is presented and idealized in male -- centered and dominated societies; for example, stereotypes such as a domineering and aggressive personae. It is a central thesis of this dissertation that while male stereotypical qualities are lauded, female qualities such as cooperative organization and intuitive understanding are often ignored when it comes to definitions of good leadership.

Statement of Problem

The question of female leadership is related not only to the issue of certain inherent female qualities but should also be considered against the d background of gender inequalities in society that act as an obstruction to acceptance and recognition. This is a complex and problematic area that is of cardinal concern in any discussion of female leadership advancement. This issue is important as it emphasize the fact that female leadership qualities will not be recognized if there is no gender equality in the society.

As many studies point out, the issue of gender equality in the workforce and in organizations has become a dominating issue in developing countries like the United States. A report entitled National Organization for Women Foundation: Sex-Based Employment Discrimination in the U.S. ( 2006) states that,

The United States has maintained for many decades one of the strongest and most stable economies in the world, generating significant employment and income growth for much of the population. But despite the country's economic might and unparalleled wealth, gains have not been equitably shared. The gulf between the top-most income earners and low- and moderate-income earners is well-documented and has expanded considerably in recent years.

(National Organization for Women Foundation: Sex-Based Employment Discrimination in the U.S.)

This disparity is also related to gender inequalities. Furthermore, the study points out that there have not been great advances towards the goal of gender equality since the ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in 1992. "…in recent years repeated efforts have been mounted by conservative legislators and policy-makers to undermine and repeal laws and policies intended to promote sex equality." (National Organization for Women Foundation: Sex-Based Employment Discrimination in the U.S.) This report therefore stresses the view reiterated in other studies that in many sectors of society there has been inadequate representation and opportunity for women. In the light of these findings, this study intends to analyze the leadership role of women and how the leadership qualities evident in women have tend be suppressed and obstructed to varying degrees in society.

Purpose of Study

In the light of the above points, the purpose of this study is essentially to add to the debate and state of knowledge on female leadership. In terms of research, the present study aims to provide as strong argument for the need for the advancement of in female leadership roles in modern society; as well as referring to some of the central obstacles to this advancement.

Research Objective

There are two main research objectives in this study. The first is, through a comparative analysis, to show that women have qualities and attributes that make that them excellent leaders in all fields. The second related objective is to explore the obstructions that prevent these qualities from manifesting or being recognized by the society.

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is based on two central aspects that are addressed in the discussion and analysis. In the first place the study provides an overview of the present situation regarding female leadership and the causative factors that have led to this situation. In other words, this refers to the reasons why women have been marginalized and often relegated to less important roles in organizations and corporations.

This leads to the concomitant issue of female leadership ability and the qualities that are considered to make for good leadership. The significance of the study therefore lies in the view that female qualities have not been sufficiently recognized and that this is an important factor that affects the effective and fair distribution of human resources in society. This study also seeks to address the untenable reality of inequality in the workplace and the fact that prejudice and marginalization have no place in a modern economy that depends on cooperation and interaction on an equitable basis.

Chapter Two

Literature Review

There is a wide range of literature that surrounds the issue of female leadership in contemporary society. In the first instance, the research undertaken on this topic has attempted to be as inclusive as possible. To this end databases such as Ebscohost and Quesia were consulted for up-to-date sources and data. However the research was also limited to the ideas and objectives suggested in chapter one. The following review is indicative of the some of the most important studies within the parameter of the central questions to be addressed.

The situation of women in leadership roles

The theme of female empowerment, the status of women and gender equality are significant issues in the world today. There have been dramatic changes in the past century with regard to the position of women in the workplace and in leadership. It is now generally acknowledged that leadership is a gender -- free concept. However, at the same time there are still very real differences between the genders in terms of advancement, remuneration and position in commerce and society in general. This leads to the obvious question as to why these disparities still exist today in advanced and developed countries.

Understanding these reasons is a complex problem as causative factors include not only gender issues but also historical racial, social and other factors and variables. One should also take into account the fact that although the leadership literature in recent years has begun to include studies on women and leadership, historically, most of the studies on this subject did not see gender as an important issue and did not deal to any great extent with the life experiences of women. As Fine ( 2009) suggests, the views and representations dealing with women in leadership were articulated by men and based on the experiences of a male -- centered worldview (Fine, 2009).

Coleman (2003) refers to a number of "orthodoxies" linked to gender and leadership. These refer to norms that prescribe an inferior status to women as well as the stereotype of a male-centered or 'macho' style of male leadership; which is a stereotype that is not even realistically applicable even to men (Coleman, 2003. P. 325). This is part of the reason why women fare so badly in terms of leadership statistics. As Needleman ( 2010) states, a 2009 study by the New York-based Catalyst Inc. shows that only three percent of chief executive officers and approximately fourteen percent of executive-officer positions within Fortune 500 companies are women. (Needleman, 2010). This aspect is further underscored by other studies; for example, Fischlmayr (2002) states that women are still under-represented in international management. It is generally concluded in many studies that it is more difficult for women than men to become leaders and to succeed in male-dominated leadership roles (Eagly, 2007).

In general, there is a perceived gap between the leadership performance of men and women. Men are often viewed as better leaders, and women often adopt masculine behaviors to fit into male-dominated hierarchical structures and systems. However, there are many studies that show that that in terms of actual leadership qualities there are no differences in gender. This is supported by many studies. A good example is a study on the increased leadership roles and competence of women in leadership by Lockwood ( 2004 ) entitled the glass ceiling: domestic and international perspectives. Lockwood notes that advances have been made in recent years in addressing the issue of the advancement of women in the workplace and in the corporate environment.

Worldwide, individual women have been breaking through the glass ceiling. Since the year 2000, New Zealand has appointed its first woman prime minister; the first woman became president of Central Bank in Finland; the former president of Ireland became the first woman Commissioner of Human Rights in the United Nations; and the World Health Organization has its first woman Director-General, the former prime minister of Norway.

( Lockwood, 2004 )

There has also been an increase in the number of corporate female managers, for example.

Obstacles and Barriers

The literature also provides a wide range of studies and articles on the obstacles and barriers in advancement in leadership roles for women. This is a central concern of the present study. For example, the literature refers to the fact that while there have been more women leaders in various sectors of society in recent decades but that there are some areas where female advancement, particularly in leadership roles, has faced an almost impenetrable "glass ceiling." This is a social barrier that has meant that many women who have leadership and administrative abilities are often prevented from reaching their potential. In an article entitled Women and Leadership: The State of Play and Strategies for Change by Hamrick, F. (2009) the author refers to studies that explore the "…range of circumstantial, environmental, and structural factors that limit women's access to leadership opportunities and explore individual, organizational, and societal strategies for change" ( Hamrick, 2009). This study also refers to areas where these stereotypes have broken down and where there is clear evidence of female leadership capability.

Another important barrier is self-perception and self-efficacy. This refers to the view that women may not have the necessary self-confidence to be leaders as a result of views and perceptions generated in a male orientated society. In this regard, a study by Fischlmayr entitled Female self-perception as barrier to international careers? (20020 provides useful insight. The author states that little has been written about the women's own fault for not being selected and that "… women themselves contribute to their under-representation in international management (Fischlmayr C. ( 2002) p. 773).

Female Qualities and Advantages

When discussing the issue of female qualities and advantages suited to leadership roles, one also has to bear in mind the feminist's perspective on this issue. This refers to the view that;

… feminism does not claim women are superior to men nor does it esteem masculine or feminine behaviors at the expense of the other. It does reject negative cultural images of women as weak or incompetent and affirms their ability to be strong, intelligent and ethical Leaders. ( Turock, 2001, p.115)

This is an important perspective as the view of female qualities and advantages is not intended to be sexist in any sense but rather to redress the inequality and imbalance in perception of female leadership.

A study that emphasizes the positive and unique qualities of female leadership is a LEADERSHIP TRAINING HANDBOOK for WOMEN by Afkhami et al. The authors refer to the fact that studies from various disciplines come to a similar conclusion; namely that, "… there is a direct causal relationship between women's involvement in social life and the strengthening of values, attitudes, and behaviors that reflect free, fair, and tolerant social interaction" and that "Achieving sustainable development in developing countries, or in less developed areas within developed countries, is unlikely in the absence of women's leadership" (Afkhami et al.).

This perception of the unique qualities that women can contribute to leadership roles is also emphasized in an article by Schyns et al. ( 2008) which states that, "

modern organizations are working towards and actually needing a modern leadership style that is characterized by more stereotypically female qualities, such as concern for others" ( Schyns et al. 2008). This aspect is also related to the increasing realization that transformational leadership is a form of leadership that is needed in the contemporary working and business environment. In this context there are two theoretical forms of leadership styles. These are referred to as masculinised and transformational.

A view that occurs in the literature is that the transformational approach to leadership is important today because it focuses on teamwork and cooperation. This form of leadership is contrasted with masculinised leadership, which stresses typical male -- centered attributes, such as instrumentality. Transformational leadership is more focused on cooperation and intuition -- which have often been described as female qualities. Therefore, the advantage for women would be that & #8230;

…modern organizations have a growing need for transformational leadership. Leaders today are expected to behave in a transformational way rather than in a dominant, autocratic way. As transformational leadership fits the female stereotype...women should suffer less from a lack of fit when using transformational leadership styles. (Schyns et al. 2008)

Chapter Three

Research Methodology

The central methodology that was used in this research was a combination of micro and macro studies. This means that individual leadership studies were researched and that these were combined with more general and broader views and studies. The emphasis was however on the broader and more inclusive methodology, as this was more appropriate to deal with the two central problem areas; namely, the general situation with regard to women in leadership and the reason why feminine leadership qualities are often obstructed.

The general methodology will be a discursive and comparative analysis of the available data, studies and reports on this topic. In other words, the methodology will take a qualitative approach and attempt to analyze, synthesize and assess the various points-of-view in order to find areas of intersection and congruency that will provide insight into the central thesis of the dissertation.

Limitations of the Study

The limitations of this study refer to the obvious limitation one finds in a broad-based, discursive and comparative analysis of the available literature. The amount of data and divergent views and critiques on this issue are extensive this means a few selected variables have to be isolated in order to present a coherent discussion and analysis.

In other words, the central limitation is that not all relevant criteria could be included; which would have meant the inclusion of political, economic and many other variables. However, the central focus on the study was on the most relevant criteria that impacted an assessment of female leadership, female marginalization and female leadership qualities and advantages; and as many concomitant aspects that related to these themes were included.

Chapter Four

Results and Analysis

Discrimination and advancement

One of the central findings evident from much of the literature on this topic is the ongoing discrimination against women and the stereotypes that tend to prevent their advancement in the workplace. In essence, many studies refer to various discriminatory practices that can be seen as the central obstacle to female advancement. Coupled with this is another facet that needs to be emphasized. This is the manner in which this discrimination is carried out. As Lockwood, (2004) states, discrimination often takes place in a covert and subtle manner.

…discrimination exists in many forms. For women, for example, discrimination can result in lower pay and fewer advances in salary when compared with men. It may also manifest in hiring practices, training and development, and promotional opportunities that are disproportionately in favor of men.

( Lockwood, 2004)

Underlying this discrimination and marginalization of women is the ethos of a male dominated environment has been found to be a central aspect in the evaluation of women in leadership. This aspect refers particularly to the phenomenon of the 'glass ceiling'. "Evidence of the glass ceiling has been described as invisible, covert and overt. & #8230;These barriers run the gamut from gender stereotypes to preferred leadership styles to tokenism in the high managerial ranks" ( Lockwood, 2004).

The important point that is being made in this comparative analysis of the literature, and in terms of the central thesis of this dissertation, is that these various stereotypes tend to suggest that women cannot cope with the demands of a corporate or business environment. For example, the common gender stereotype which situates women in a nurturing, submissive role, while men are seen as the dominant, more aggressive and hence more capable gender, is often used as a reason to hire men rather than women in leadership roles. There is also the counter argument that will be explored in the next section of this chapter, which refers to the view that it is precisely these various female strengths and qualities that make women good leaders in the modern business and organizational environment; and which should ensure that women receive at least the same opportunities as men in leadership roles.

Many studies refer to the perception that males are more suited to managerial positions than females because of their leadership styles (Chaffins et al. 1995). Discrimination is therefore seen as a central reason for women being underrated and prevented from access to leadership roles in the military and other institutions.

Another aspect that is emphasized in many studies on this issue is that there are certain social and cultural practices that lead to this discrimination against women and prevent them from attaining leadership positions. This is an important area of concern as it becomes clear from the analyses of the various studies that obstructions to female advancement in leadership do not only come for male leadership and authority structures but are in fact generated from a deeper cultural and social substratum. In other words, the stereotypes and views that discriminate against women are often deeply ingrained in the cultural fabric of the society, which makes these stereotypes even more difficult to overcome.

The Social Construction of Reality

With reference to the above, it is important to emphasize the view from sociological theory that all reality is socially constructed. This means that from a theoretical perspective, stereotypical and cultural views of what women are capable of are not based in reality. It is not therefore a fixed and unshakable truth but is rather a view of women that is 'constructed' or made up by the society. In other words, these female stereotypes, in the view of many modern sociologists, are a fiction that has been created by the society and culture to ensure male dominance and to justify female subjugation in the society.

In this regard we could refer to the well- known work by Berger and Luckmann entitled the Social Construction of Reality. This work refers to the view that "…the world of knowledge was constituted by cultural authority figures. Men not only defined leadership, they also determined what was incorporated in knowledge about it "(Turock, 2001, p. 115).

An article by Betty Turock also tends to emphasize this view and provides an historical perspective that shows the way in which women have been obstructed in their advancement by the process of downgrading their qualities and potential in the society. For example, Turock ( 2001) notes that;" Research in the 1950s focused on understanding men's leadership behavior. Women who did not conform to masculine models were eliminated from studies that invariably concluded leadership was predominantly a male endowment"… and…" Research continually reiterates that internal barriers kept women from being right for leadership roles" ( Turock, 2001, p. 115) .

One of the central contentions made in the literature is that women were prevented from aspiring to leadership positions because they did not fit the model of leadership as it was determined by males. If they did not fit these constructed stereotypes of a 'good leader' in the male context, then they were deemed to be "deficient" (Turock, 2001, p. 115). This view became internalized in the psyche of women and this led to self-questioning about their leadership abilities and, in many cases, a crisis of confidence. As mentioned in the previous section, one of the reasons why women often do not attain top leadership positions is because of self-doubt and a lack of self-esteem; which has in fact been generated by the social and cultural view about female inferiority.

This point again refers to a central contention of this study; namely that the qualities and abilities of women have not been fully recognized and that if these qualities are taken into account then there is no reason why women could not make good leaders.

The stereotypical view of women as weak as and more concerned with nurturing and being housewives than with worldly affairs is part of the argument that suggests that women are not capable of leadership. These accords with the predominantly masculine stereotypes that dominate the leadership selection process in mainly male dominated fields. This is an assertion that needs to be challenged and replaced by a more realistic and just view of women in leadership roles. The following section will attempt to show the women have the necessary biological, mental and psychological qualities that make them extremely capable as leaders.

Female Leadership: Qualities and Advantages

There have been a number of contemporary studies and research reports on the issue of female leadership acumen. Turock ( 2001), referring to the views of prominent feminist theorists, states that, "…it was not gender but opportunity, power and proportional distribution of diverse people that explained the differences between men and women as leaders" ( Turock, 2001, p. 118). In other words there is no inherent difference between men and women in terms of their ability to be good leaders. Rather, the reason for the disparity between male and female leaders is as result of other factors, such as more opportunity for males as a result of gender perception and discrimination. In this regard, the following quotation is cited at length as it provides insight into the qualities and advantages of the female species in relation to leadership requirements.

In her study of women leaders, Helgesen found that they had more differences from men than similarities. Women made deliberate efforts to be accessible. While men saw interruptions as a usurpation of time, women saw them as a means of keeping the organization in good repair.

These traits were characteristic of women's emphasis on relationships.

Men spared little time for activities not directly related to their work, including time with family, or for outside interests. Women, on the other hand, participated in activities outside their jobs, particularly with their families, whom they declared were their top priority. Helgesen referred

to the approach of women to leadership as having an integrated

life, in which everything -- home and work -- flowed together.

( Turock, 2001, p. 122)

The above quotation requires some unpacking as it condenses a number of issue relevant to the present study. In the first place, there is an emphasis on the social nature of women and their "accessibility" in the leadership role. In other words, women are more open to interaction and mutual reciprocity in the organization and the workplace. This is an essential factor in the light of the modern views on leadership qualities and the perceived need for a more interactive and holistic style of leadership. This aspect will be discussed in more depth below.

An important aspect that is noted in the above study is the perception of time and " interruptions" by women, as compared to men. While men tend in general to be more limited and conservative in their interaction with others and in their management of time, women on the other hand tend to see opportunities for interaction in apparent "interruptions." "Unlike men, women scheduled time to share information" (Turock, 2001, p. 122). This is also an aspect that pertains to modern leadership models. As Turock states, women seem to be more open to a relational mode of leadership and amenable to a more integrated and holistic view of work and play.

Another important quality in terms of leadership that has been noted by critics and commentators is the penchant for women to lead from the center, as it were, rather than from above. This is an important aspect of leadership, as leadership from the top down implies a conservative and rather authoritarian approach; whereas women, it has been found, tend to be more interactive and open in their leadership styles and more democratically inclined as leaders than men. Another aspect that is often emphasized and noted about women is that they tend to be more intuitive in their decision-making and more flexible and open to input from others.

Changing Views of Leadership and the Need for Diversity

The issue of female leadership has a direct bearing on contemporary theories of leadership. There are many views and estimations of what modern leadership should be, or rather the best and most appropriate form of leadership to suit the modern age. However, if we take into account the modern world in which we live and the interconnected nature of modern business and life, then the interactional and transformational style of leadership has become a model that is considered to be the most appropriate style of leadership today. This stands to reason if we consider that we live in an age of globalization and internet communication, where conservative, rational notions of leadership no longer apply; and where interaction and communication across barriers has become an increasingly important aspect of leadership.

Modern theories of leadership tend to question the top-down and authoritarian mode of leadership -- which is often associated with male rather than female leadership styles. In essence, a good leader in the modern context must not be only able to understand the needs of others but must also be able to convey his or her views, ideas and vision to those whom he or she leads. The two aspects of communicative ability and vision are essential foundations for good leadership.

Other important qualities of modern leadership include interaction and close engagement with others. Associated with this view is a broad contextual perspective that enables a more holistic understanding of the organizational environment and its potential problem areas (Williams, 2005, p. 3).

As referred to briefly above, these modern theories of leadership tend to suggest the more feminine and open relational model, which is preferred by many theorists today. This in turn in suggests that the authoritarian male -- orientated model is no longer as acceptable as it once was. Furthermore this relates to the two commonly leadership styles referred to in the literature. These are the authoritarian or autocratic and the participative or democratic styles.

In brief, the authoritative style is the more traditional style of leadership where the leader instructs his or her employees about what should be done and how it must be accomplished. Democratic leadership on the other hand implies that the members of the organization have a say in leadership decision. As Ascher & Hirschfelder-Ascher, (2005) state, this style take accounts of "….the development of the optimism, sense of fair play, and willingness to share that characterizes democratic character" (Ascher & Hirschfelder-Ascher, 2005, p. 100).The democratic style of leadership is aligned with the range of participative leadership styles. Participative leadership has been described as follows.

This type of style involves the leader including one or more employees in on the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your employees will respect.

(Leadership styles).

Transactional leadership on the one hand refers to the more traditional view that the leader should have a certain power and authority over his or her employees. On the other hand, the transformational style of leadership tends to be more people-orientated and seeks to motivate subordinates not by ordered tasks but rather be engaging them in the work process and making them feel part of the organizational structure and decision-making. A primary characteristic of this type of leadership is to develop and react to the needs of the individual.

As one study states, the more democratic and transformational mode of leadership is one that has often been associated with female qualities and advantages.

Transformational leadership which develops and motivates staff to share a vision & #8230; owes much more to a feminine paradigm of management than a masculine one. The masculine paradigm is closer to the idea of managerial leadership focusing on the achievement of tasks in a formal and hierarchical way. ( Coleman, 2003, p. 323)

Another aspect that lends impetus and credence tom the assertion that women leaders are as necessary and important as male leader in the world today is the contemporary emphasis on diversity. As Turock ( 2001) states. The issue of divferity, which included gender diversity, has become an essential aspect of modern commerce and international business growth. "Greater diversity in leadership has become more than a social and moral question; it is a necessity for the economic growth and progress of our nation" (Turock, 2001, p. 122). Furthermore, Turock goes on to emphasize that;