Parents and Families as Partners


Using your text Chapter 17 (Parent, Family, and Community Involvement) and Table 17.1 (Research Support for Parent Involvement) submit a two page paper on how you will encourage parent/family involvement. In your paper, you must describe all six types listed below, give an example of each way to encourage involvement from a teacher or school?s perspective, and cite how research supports those ideas.

In your paper, describe the following and give examples how a teacher/school can encourage:

Parenting Knowledge and Skills
Communication Between the Home and School
Volunteering at the School and in the Community
Supporting Student Learning at Home
Involvement in Decision Making and Advocacy
Collaboration with the Community
Assignment Instructions:

Must be 2 double-spaced pages in length and formatted according to APA style as outlined in your approved style guide.

Must include a cover page that includes:
Name of paper
Student's name
Course name and number
Instructor?s name
Date submitted
Must include at least one additional outside source.
Must use APA style as outlined in your approved style guide to document all sources.
Must include, on the final page, a Reference List that is completed according to APA style as outlined in your approved style guide.
Must be well organized and reflect college level writing.
Carefully review the Grading Rubric for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.

Hi my topic is Parents Involvement in Early Childhood Education.
I have completed my Action Research Outline, the writer will need to follow my outline as a reference when completing the proposal. I will e-mail that as an attachment.

Writer will also need to follow the university's Action Research Handbook as a guideline to complete the proposal. All the components of the handbook will need to be completed, NO EXCEPTION.



There are faxes for this order.

Please answer the following question. I need this assignment done by 12 pm please. My class is at 1pm, wed. sept 19. Thanks.

1 Select three educational settings in your community. Contact members of
the program staff and interview them to determine the following:

a. How does their program de?ne parent involvement? Do they have a
policy statement or mission statement? What does their choice of
parent involvement activities reveal about their philosophy of parent
involvement?

b. Describe activities and strategies used to involve parents. How do staff
members support these efforts?

c. What bene?ts do staff members perceive for children, families, and the
program?

d. What challenges to participation do parents face that may prevent them
from becoming actively involved? What has been (or can be) done to
overcome these challenges?

2. In a small group, discuss the reasons to support parent involvement for
families, programs, and communities. By group consensus, list the three
most signi?cant reasons your community should promote family
involvement.

3. In multiple studies, researchers have discovered differences in parent
involvement strategies used by programs and schools. Conduct your own community research, individually or within a team. Interview the parents
of children in preschool, kindergarten or primary grades, and middle or
upper grades. Ask them:

a. What opportunities are available for parents to be involved in your
child?s program/school?
 b. How does the teacher invite your support?
 c. What activities have you been involved in?
 d. What factors encouraged your participation?
 e. What may have discouraged you from participating?

Analyze the similarities and differences among the parents you
interviewed according to the program or school, ages of the children, and
your perception of the parental characteristics

4. Imagine yourself to be a parent, an educator, and an administrator. What
rewards and frustrations (or barriers) regarding parent involvement would
you expect to encounter? Support your answers.

5. Identify federal, state, and community initiatives utilized in your area to
promote family involvement. How long have the programs been in
existence? Are they selective or restrictive in determining who can
participate? What strategies or activities do they use that encourage
parent involvement? How does the community perceive the value and
effectiveness of the parent components? What criticisms have you heard?

6. What do Epstein?s Model Parent Involvement Components, the National
PTS Standards for Parent Involvement, and the National Association of
State School Boards of Education?s statement on parent involvement have
in common?

In this modules lecture, a number of factors are cited as barriers to parents' involvement in their childrens education. These factors include life demands, such as time, child care, and transportation; language barriers; cultural beliefs; lack of understanding of the school environment; lack of knowledge about curriculum; and issues of inclusion and discrimination.

In your experience, which of these factors has the greatest impact on the parents of your students? Explain.
How does your school, or can your school, help parents overcome the barrier(s) and become more active participants in their childs education?
How do you, or can you, help parents overcome the barrier(s) and become more active participants in their childs education?

Literature Review
This not written in 1st person. briefly summaize in sentence form the studies, use diret quotes from the literature. must provide a clear background of the issue, make sure articles address topic.
at the end of the literature review, synthesize what the research says about the topic (the topic is parent involvement as it relates to student success) i will email 5 journal articles 12 font time roman single space
There are faxes for this order.

Please include the purpose, relevance to a school admimistrator or school counselor, summary,and conclusion.
HERE the Article
( I can email too)
Title:
Prediction African American Parents' and Guardians' Satisfaction With Teachers and Public Schools.
Authors:
Thompson, Gail L.
Source:
Journal of Educational Research; May/Jun2003, Vol. 96 Issue 5, p277, 9p, 9 charts
Document Type:
Article
Subject Terms:
*AFRICAN Americans
*PUBLIC schools
*PUBLIC relations -- Schools
*TEACHERS
*REGRESSION analysis
NAICS/Industry Codes611110 Elementary and Secondary Schools
Abstract:
Provides information on a study that examined variables that predicted how African American parents and guardians rated their children's teachers and the public school system using regression analyses. Methodology of the study; Results and discussion on the study.
Full Text Word Count:
6453
ISSN:
00220671
Accession Number:
10400546
Persistent link to this record:
http://pv-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2062/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10400546&site=ehost-live
Cut and Paste:
Prediction African American Parents' and Guardians' Satisfaction With Teachers and Public Schools.
Database:
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Prediction African American Parents' and Guardians' Satisfaction With Teachers and Public Schools
ABSTRACT The author used regression analyses to examine variables that predicted how African American parents and guardians rated their children's teachers and the public school system. The results indicated that although several variables were significant, parents' and guardians' satisfaction with their children's elementary school teachers was the strongest predictor of how they rated high school teachers and the public school system. The need for educators and policymakers to improve their relations with African American parents and guardians is underscored.
Key words: African American parents and guardians, public school satisfaction, teacher satisfaction
In January 2002, President G. W. Bush signed The No Child Left Behind Act into law. This bill was designed to close the achievement gap between White upper- and middle-class public school students and poor children and children of color (U.S. Department of Education, 2001b). Education reform is not a new concept. For nearly 4 decades, government officials have sought to reform the public school system. However, no reform movement has been successful in closing the achievement gap, and there are some indicators that the achievement gap is actually widening (U.S. Department of Education, 2001b). The National Assessment of Educational Progress has reported consistently that the standardized test scores of average African American and Hispanic students continue to lag behind the scores of White students at comparable grade levels (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Moreover, after examining 27 school reform models, the U.S. Department of Education (1998) concluded that most of the reform models had failed to make substantial improvements.
The new education reform bill, The No Child Left Behind Act, seeks to close the persistent achievement gap through a multifaceted and comprehensive approach. The bill promises to (a) achieve excellence through high standards and accountability, (b) make literacy a priority, (c) improve teacher quality, (d) improve mathematics and science instruction, and (e) move students with limited English proficiency to English fluency. Enhancing education through technology, providing impact aid, and encouraging safe schools are additional components of the reform plan. However, one of the most historic and controversial aspects of the plan is that the new legislation also promises to promote parental options. Although some states had already enacted school choice policies, the U.S. Supreme Court (U.S. Department of Education, 2002b) upheld parents' right to choose their children's schools. Throughout the nation, instead of just in certain states, the parents of students in substandard public schools will finally have the government-sanctioned option of moving their children to higher performing schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2001b). For the most part, the majority of children in substandard public schools tend to be poor children and children of color. Those children are more likely than others to have the least qualified teachers (Quality Counts, 2000), to be subjected to low expectations (Drew, 1996; Oakes, 1999; Polite, 1999; Thompson, 2002), and to be less likely to have access to the courses (Dupuis, 1999) and quality of instruction that would prepare them adequately for college (Thompson, 2002). However, one of the primary goals of The No Child Left Behind Act is to improve the quality of teachers in all schools, thereby eradicating those persistent problems. Consequently, the new legislation ideally would decrease the likelihood that parents would merely move their children to another poor-quality school.
Although critics have raised numerous questions about the efficacy of school choice, the U.S. Department of Education is emphatic in maintaining that the Supreme Court's recent decision to uphold school choice policies "is perhaps the most important education decision since Brown v. Board of Education" (U.S. Department of Education, 2002a, p. 1). In another press release, the U.S. Department of Education cited research that validates the efficacy of school choice in improving the academic performance of African American students. According to the press release, "the beneficiaries of school choice are overwhelmingly minority, typically Black students" (U.S. Department of Education 2002b, p. 1).
Because the new education reform bill seeks to empower the parents of children in underperforming schools by permitting them to place their children in better schools and to use Title I funds for tutoring, summer school, and after-school or weekend assistance, there is a need as never before for educators to improve their relations with parents. As a result of deficit theories about the language, culture, home environments, and parents of children of color (Thompson, 2002), a gulf has arisen between some groups of parents and educators. Often, African American and Hispanic parents do not attend school functions. Consequently, there is a widely held belief among educators in poor and urban schools that those parents do not care about their children's education (Delpit, 1995; Flores, Tefft-Cousin, & Diaz, 1991; Poplin & Weeres, 1992; Thompson, 2002). Moreover, in its Schools and Staffing Surveys for 1990-1991 and 1993-1994, The Digest of Education Statistics (U.S. Department of Education, 1999) reported that lack of parent involvement was a great concern for many public school teachers.
Some researchers have found that there is a mismatch between teachers' perceptions of parent and guardian involvement and reality (Flores et al., 1991; Poplin & Weeres, 1992). For example, Thompson (2002) conducted a study of the K-12 schooling experiences of nearly 300 African American students in a southern California region that had many underperforming schools. Although there was a widespread assumption among educators in the region that the parents and guardians of most children of color were apathetic about their children's formal education, Thompson found that when the African American students in her study were asked to rate the level of their parents' involvement, the majority of students rated it as excellent or good. The students' ratings were compared later with data from African American parents in the same region. The overwhelming majority of the parents also rated their involvement in their children's education as excellent or good (Thompson, 2003). Furthermore, in their examination of the National Education Longitudinal Study data, Cook and Ludwig (1998) found that African American parents were as involved in their children's education as were White parents from similar socioeconomic backgrounds. These findings are similar to those of other researchers who found that educators are not always the most reliable judges of parent involvement (Flores et al., 1991; Poplin & Weeres, 1992).
Despite the mismatch between teachers' perceptions of parent involvement versus the reality, a plethora of research has underscored the strong positive correlation between parent involvement and children's academic achievement. For example, according to the U.S. Department of Education (2001a), family involvement is linked to better attendance at school, higher test scores, higher grades, higher graduation rates, a higher rate of homework completion, and greater likelihood of college attendance.
Furthermore, some researchers have specifically described the positive correlation between parent involvement and the schooling experiences of African American students. Comer and Poussaint (1992) not only discussed the importance of parent involvement but also described numerous strategies that African American parents can use to improve their relations with educators. Thompson (1998) conducted a resiliency study that involved African American college students and interviews with successful African American adults, including attorneys, a television producer, educators, and employment managers. Parents were the most frequently cited positive role models in that study, followed by other relatives, teachers, and preachers, respectively. Whereas low achievers, dropouts, and nonresilient students also might have positive role models, most resiliency research emphasizes the positive link between resilient students and positive adult role models. Floyd (1995) examined variables that contributed to the academic success of a group of lower socioeconomic status (SES) African American high school students. She found that good parental relationships or positive relationships with other adults played an important role in the students' academic success. Wilson and Allen (1987) studied African American adults to identify links between educational attainment and family practices. They concluded that parents play a significant role in their children's education. Clark (1983) studied the home environments of high-and low-achieving poor African American high school seniors and found that parents of high achievers used regular routines to assist their children academically. Conversely, the parents of low achievers were so overwhelmed by adversity that they made few positive contributions to their children's formal schooling.
Although educators often bemoan the lack of parent involvement, and some educators even blame poor student achievement on parent apathy, there is clearly a need for educators to be diligent in their efforts to increase parent involvement in their children's education. This is especially true of African American parents because African American students have historically been more likely to suffer from low achievement than have their peers of other racial and ethnic groups. In light of the new education reform bill's promise to empower the parents of children in underperforming schools, educators will have to move beyond being merely concerned about parent involvement. Moreover, to prevent a parent-initiated mass exodus of children from low-performing schools, educators will be forced--by government mandate--to improve the quality of education that those children receive, and they must be willing to include parents in the discussion of how to initiate and implement those improvements.
A logical first step is for educators to begin to listen to the voices of parents in order to hear their concerns. In an effort to begin this discussion, I sought to provide educators with feedback from African American parents about their children's schooling experiences. In this study, I examined variables that predict how African American parents and guardians of school-aged children rate their children's elementary and secondary school teachers, and the public school system as a whole. An awareness of those variables can enable educators to get a head start not only on hearing the concerns of African American parents but also on improving their relations with these parents and seeking effective ways to improve the quality of education that they offer to African American students.
Method
I collected quantitative and qualitative data from African American parents and guardians who participated in a larger study. I designed the larger study to give African American parents and guardians of school-aged children an opportunity to describe many aspects of their children's schooling experiences. A press release describing the study was published in three southern California regional newspapers that target African Americans. Also, a local radio talk show reporter described the study and invited African American parents who were interested to contact me. I also attended or sent a representative to four predominantly African American community-based events, including two graduations at predominantly African American schools. As a result, 129 African American parents and guardians participated in the quantitative phase of the study; 23 of these were interviewed for the qualitative phase. I used questionnaire data pertaining to variables that predict how parents and guardians rate their children's teachers and the public school system.
For the present study, the self-selected group of parents and guardians can be categorized as a purposive sample who met the following inclusion criteria: (a) They identified themselves as African Americans. (b) They were the parents and guardians of school-aged children. (c) They were willing to participate in the study. As with any nonrandom sample, questions about the "generalizability" of the results arise. However, the facts that (a) the participants were diverse in age, gender, highest level of education attainment, and SES and (b) they represented multiple school districts increase the likelihood that they were representative of the diversity that exists among the general African American population. Nevertheless, this and other limitations are addressed in the Discussion section of this article.
The Questionnaire
An original questionnaire was distributed to the self-selected sample. The questionnaire consisted of 39 Likert-type, dichotomous, and open-ended questions. In addition to demographic information, the survey instrument included questions pertaining to children's elementary, middle, and high school experiences; racism at school; how parents and guardians perceived school personnel, suspension, and expulsion; attitudes about college; literacy issues; academic problems; and specific ways in which parents and guardians assist their children academically. The questionnaire was field tested and approved by an institutional review board. A test of interitem reliability of the dependent variables yielded an alpha coefficient of .87, indicating high internal consistency. Also, a comparison between the questionnaire and interview responses of the parents and guardians who participated in both phases of the study resulted in a high level of test-retest reliability.
Data Analyses
I used a standard statistical software program (SPSS) for the social sciences to analyze the questionnaire data. Bivariate correlations and stepwise multiple regressions were run. Mean substitution was used for missing data. I controlled collinearity problems by excluding variables that had a tolerance level below .30. To enter the equation, a variable had to be significant at .05 or less. Variables were dropped from the equation if their p level was .10 or greater.
Participants
African American parents and guardians of school-aged children in 11 southern California school districts participated in the study. However, 74% of the parents and guardians had children in one school district. Statewide, African American children constituted 8% of the students in public schools (California Department of Education, 2001); in the one school district, they constituted 12% of the total student population. Nevertheless, they were represented disproportionately among the students who did not fare well academically. For example, the African American students had lower average standardized tests scores than did their peers of other racial or ethnic groups in the school district and higher suspension and expulsion rates. When the new state-mandated High School Exit examination was given in 2001, the majority of African American students who took the test failed the mathematics portion, and nearly half failed the English-language arts section (California Department of Education, 2001).
Approximately 80% of the parents and guardians who participated in the present study were women. Parents (78%), versus guardians (22%), accounted for the largest group of participants. The average parent and guardian had two school-aged children, but 33% of them had three or more school-aged children. Sixty-seven percent had at least one child in elementary school, 43% had at least one child in middle school, and 36% had at least one child in high school when the study was conducted. Moreover, many of the parents and guardians who had school-aged children also had adult children who had already graduated from public high schools.
Results
Ratings for Elementary School Teachers
Sixty-nine percent of the African American parents and guardians gave their children's elementary school teachers an excellent or good rating, and only 14% gave them a low rating of poor or needs to improve (see Table 1). I created a regression model to identify the variables that were most likely to predict how African American parents and guardians rated their children's elementary teachers.
Eight variables (expulsion from school, experiencing racism at school, being retained or failing courses, suspension from school, parents' and guardians' beliefs about how teachers had treated their children, the value that parents and guardians placed on their children's elementary course work, how parents and guardians rated their own academic assistance to their children, and number of school-aged children in the family) were insignificant. However, four variables were significant and accounted for 45% of the variance in the dependent variable. The variable representing how parents and guardians rated the public school system made the strongest contribution to the equation, contributing 30% to the R. The second strongest predictor was the variable representing parents' and guardians' perception of the benefits of their children's elementary school homework. The variable representing whether parents and guardians believed that most public school teachers cared about their students was the third strongest predictor. Children's elementary track (Special Education, Basic, G.A.T.E.) entered the equation last and added an additional 2% to the equation (see Table 2).
Ratings for Middle School Teachers
Sixty-six percent of the parents and guardians who had children who were in middle school when the study was conducted or who previously had had children in middle school rated their children's middle school teachers as excellent or good. Only 11% of the parents and guardians gave the middle school teachers a low rating (see Table 3). When a stepwise regression model was developed, six independent variables (parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether most school administrators cared about students, parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether most school administrators and counselors had treated their children fairly, children's experiencing racism at school, children's suspension from school, parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether teachers cared about students, and parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether teachers had treated their children fairly) were insignificant. Six variables were significant and accounted for 42% of the variance in the dependent variable.
The variable representing the level at which students had been retained or failed courses entered the equation first and accounted for 16% of the R. The type of school (public or private) that children were attending was the second strongest predictor. The variable representing having children in elementary school at the time that the study was conducted was the third strongest predictor, but it accounted for only 3% of the variance. The variable indicating that a student had a problem with social studies added slightly less than 3% to the R. The variable indicating that a student was struggling with mathematics was the only one that was a negative predictor, and it accounted for 2% of the variance. The variable indicating that parents and guardians assisted their children academically by contacting teachers on a regular basis entered the equation on Step 6 (see Table 4).
Ratings for High School Teachers
Forty-nine percent of the parents and guardians who had children in high school or who had been in high school previously rated their high school teachers as excellent or good. Twenty percent of those parents and guardians gave the high school teachers a low rating (see Table 5).
The stepwise multiple regression results indicated that four independent variables (parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether most school administrators cared about students, the value that parents and guardians placed on their children's education, parents' and guardians' perception of the benefits of their children's elementary school homework, and their perception of the benefits of their children's middle school homework) were insignificant. However, eight variables were significant and, when combined, accounted for 55% of the variance in the dependent variable.
The strongest predictor was the rating that parents and guardians gave to their children's elementary teachers, which accounted for 26% of the R. The second strongest predictor was parents' and guardians' beliefs about the benefits of their children's high school homework. Parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether most teachers had treated their children fairly was a negative predictor. The variable representing whether parents and guardians had assisted their children academically by serving as classroom volunteers was also a negative predictor. The variable representing children's attitude about reading accounted for less than 3% of the variance. Parents' and guardians' perception of the benefits of their children's high school course work added less than 2% to the R, as did the variables represent grade-retention-course-failure level and the rating that parents and guardians give to themselves for assisting their children academically (see Table 6).
Ratings for the Public School System
Nearly 60% of the parents and guardians rated the public school system as excellent or good (see Table 7). When a stepwise multiple regression model was created, eight independent variables (parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether administrators had treated their children fairly, expulsion from school, retention-course failure, suspension from school, parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether teachers cared about students, parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether teachers had treated their children fairly, parents' and guardians' perceptions of the benefits of the elementary homework their children received, and perceptions of the school district's racial climate) were insignificant. Four variables were significant and when combined, accounted for 41% of the variance in predicting how African American parents and guardians rated the public school system.
The strongest predictor of how parents and guardians rated the public school system was the rating that they gave to their children's elementary teachers, which accounted for nearly 30% of the total R. Parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether most school administrators cared about students was the second strongest predictor. The third strongest predictor, which was negative, was the variable representing whether parents and guardians stated that their children had experienced racism at school. Parents' and guardians' perception of the benefits of the elementary course wrk that was assigned to their children entered the equation last (see Table 8). Table 9 contains all of the variables that entered the four regression equations.
Discussion
The results of the present study indicate that some variables have a greater impact on African American parents' and guardians' satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their children's teachers and the public school system as a whole. The majority of parents and guardians gave high ratings to their children's teachers and to the public school system, but a higher percentage of parents and guardians were more dissatisfied with secondary school teachers than with elementary teachers. The parents' and guardians' satisfaction with the public school system was consistent with that found in other research. Rose and Gallup (2001) reported that about half of the respondents who participated in a national poll gave high ratings to the public school system but that a higher percentage of parents of public school students did so.
In the present study, of the four independent variables that surfaced as predictors of how parents and guardians rated their children's elementary school teachers, three of the variables combined (beliefs about the benefits of their children's elementary school homework, beliefs about whether teachers cared about students, and their children's elementary school track) accounted for only 15% of the total R. The rating that the parents and guardians gave to the public school system accounted for 30% of the variance, which suggests that there is a positive correlation between African American parents' and guardians' satisfaction with their children's elementary school teachers and their overall satisfaction with the public school system as a whole. Parents and guardians whose children had excellent and at least good elementary teachers were more likely to also believe that the public school system was doing an excellent or good job of educating their children. Conversely, parents and guardians who believed that their children's elementary teachers did a poor job or needed to improve were likely to believe the same about the public school system.
Of the six independent variables that emerged as predictors of how the African American parents and guardians rated their children's middle school teachers, a combination of four variables (having elementary schoolchildren in the household, having a child who was struggling with social studies or with mathematics, and saying that they contacted their children's teachers on a regular basis) explained only 10% of the variance. However, two variables combined, students' grade-retention-course-failure level and the type of school that they attended, accounted for 31% of the variance. That finding suggests that the African American parents and guardians of children who failed middle and high school courses were more likely than the parents and guardians of children who did not fail secondary school courses to rate their children's middle school teachers as excellent or good. One plausible explanation is that those parents and guardians might have associated course failure with higher' academic standards, challenge, and rigor. Therefore, they might have assumed that if their children failed middle or high school courses, they had better teachers. Another possibility for that finding is that the parents and guardians might have believed that their children deserved to fail courses because of a lack of effort. When rating middle school teachers, the parents and guardians might have considered other variables pertaining to their adolescent children who failed courses. In addition to the developmental changes, peer pressure, and increasing demands of schoolwork that all adolescents experience (Barr & Parrett, 1995), African American adolescents also must contend with a growing awareness of the existence of racism and issues pertaining to what it means to be an African American in the United States (Corbin & Pruitt, 1999; White & Parham, 1990). Subsequently, the African American parents and guardians may have attributed their children's course failure to these variables, instead of to their teachers. That theory is supported by other research. For example, Thompson (2002) found that some of the African American teenagers who participated in the interview phase of her study attributed their course failure in middle school, high school, or both, to personal circumstances or a lack of effort. Another plausible explanation is that the parents and guardians might have excluded from their rating of middle school teachers the teachers whose courses their children failed. The survey question asked, "How would you rate how well MOST of your child's/children's middle school teachers have taught your child/children?" Therefore, parents and guardians might have focused on the efficacy of "most" of their children's teachers and excluded those associated with their children's course failure.
The second finding pertaining to middle school teachers indicates that the African American parents and guardians who had children in private school when the study was conducted were more likely than the parents and guardians of public school children to rate their children's middle school teachers as excellent or good. That finding validates the pervasive, but not necessarily true (Ingersoll, 1999), assumption that children in private schools tend to have better teachers than do children in public schools.
Eight variables predicted how African American parents and guardians rated their children's high school teachers. When combined, six of the variables (parents' and guardians' perceptions 'of how teachers had treated their children, whether parents and guardians had served as classroom volunteers, children's attitude about reading, parents' and guardians' beliefs about the benefits of their children's high school course work, grade-retention-course failure level, and parents' and guardians' self-rating of how they had assisted their children academically) accounted for 16% of the variance. Two other variables, how parents and guardians rated their children's elementary school teachers and their beliefs about the benefits of their children's high school homework, accounted for 39% of the variance. Those findings underscore the important role that elementary school teachers play in influencing African American parents' and guardians' satisfaction with subsequent teachers. Furthermore, the findings suggest that when African American parents and guardians believe that their children are being assigned meaningful and beneficial high school homework, they are also more likely to believe that their children have excellent or good high school teachers.
Of the four variables that predicted how African American parents and guardians rated the public school system, a combination of three variables (parents' and guardians' beliefs about whether most public school administrators cared about students, whether their children had experienced racism at school, and parents' and guardians' beliefs about the benefits of their children's elementary school course work) accounted for less than 12% of the variance. The strongest predictor, however, was how parents and guardians rated their children's elementary teachers, which accounted for more than twice as much of the variance as the other three variables combined.
Throughout this study, although many variables surfaced as predictors of how African American parents and guardians rated their children's teachers and the public school system, a recurring theme has been that the quality of their children's elementary school teachers had a strong impact on the parents' and guardians' satisfaction with teachers and the public school system. Moreover, at least five of the variables that entered the equations pertained to elementary school. One conclusion that can be drawn is that to increase African American parents' and guardians' satisfaction with teachers and the public school system, the education system must provide their children with outstanding elementary teachers. The dismal Natinal Assessment of Educational Progress reading and mathematics scores of the average African American fourth grader (U.S. Department of Education, 2000) are strong indicators that teacher quality must improve at the elementary level (Drew, 1996). Highly qualified elementary teachers who provide African American children with the strong literacy and mathematics skills that they will need to succeed at subsequent school levels can be critical in closing the historic achievement gap.
One of the most important findings is that there are many other variables that were not identified by this study that must be explored. Each of the regression equations explained only a fraction of the variables that predicted the ratings that African American parents and guardians gave. Therefore, other variables should be examined in additional studies. A larger sample of African American parents and guardians of private school children and a larger sample of parents and guardians from many school districts (instead of primarily from one district) could allow researchers to uncover important information. Moreover, explanations should be explored for the finding that the parents and guardians of children who failed middle school and high school courses were more likely to give a high rating to middle school teachers. Furthermore, the fact that the majority of African American parents and guardians gave high ratings to the public school system and to most teachers, yet the public school system continues to fail a large number of African American children--as illustrated by the Black-White achievement gap--is perplexing. One possible explanation is that the results might have been different if the majority of the parents and guardians had had children in high school rather than elementary school, because parents and guardians of elementary school-aged children have had less time to evaluate the public school system in relation to their children. This is a plausible explanation because the parents' and guardians' public school system rating was predicated primarily on how they rated elementary school teachers.
Moreover, the findings that parents' and guardians' perception of whether most administrators cared about students was the second strongest predictor of their public school rating and that racism surfaced as the third predictor indicate that teacher quality is not the sole variable that affects African American parents' and guardians' perception of the public school system's efficacy. Qualitative studies that permit African American parents and guardians to elaborate might be useful in addressing some of the issues that were raised. Finally, although the participants in the present study appeared to have been representative of the diversity that exists among the general African American population, the fact that the participants constituted a nonrandom sample raises a question about the generalizability of the results. That is another reason that further research is warranted.
In spite of the limitations of the present study, it can be used to inform policymakers and educators who seek feedback from African American parents and guardians. Because researchers have found that parent involvement correlated positively with children's achievement (Clark, 1983: Comer & Poussaint, 1992; Floyd, 1995; Thompson, 1998; Wilson & Allen, 1987), and because the new No Child Left Behind legislation (U.S. Department of Education, 2001b) promises to empower African American parents and guardians as never before, policymakers and educators must continue to seek ways to improve their relations with African American parents and guardians and to give them additional opportunities to discuss issues pertaining to their children's schooling. Further research that gives African American parents and guardians opportunities to explain some of the findings in the present study and to share new information might move the goals of No Child Left Behind further from being perceived by some educators as "the latest political rhetoric by a new administration" and closer to the reality of the eradication of the Black-White achievement gap

There are faxes for this order.

In this writing assignment

1. Select one educational setting in your community. Who/ what would you select? Contact members of the program staff and interview them to determine the following:

* How does their program define parent involvement?
Do they have a policy statement or mission statement?
What was their choice of parent involvement activities reveal about their philosophy of parent involvement.

* Describe activities and strategies used to involve parents.
How do staff members support these efforts?

* What benefits do staff members perceive for children, families, and the program?

* What challenges to participation do parents face that may prevent them from becoming actively involved?
What has been (or can be) done to overcome these challenges?

Each candidate will compose awritten response to the scenario below...........

The principal has asked you to serve as a consultant to the School Improvement Committee. She has provided you with demographic and achievement data for the school and a copy of last year?s plan. She wants you to come to the first meeting with some ideas for school improvement in the area of reading. According to last year?s needs assessment, reading scores for all segments of the school have not improved for the past three years. African American (20% of school population) and English Language Learners (35% of school population) student scores are significantly lower than other groups. Since you have had success improving student achievement for all students and involving parents, the principal wants you to provide ideas to the committee to improve student achievement and parent involvement. She also wants to know what steps will be needed to enhance professional practice to meet student needs.

Desired State of School
Taking the view that there is no school so perfect it cannot be improved upon; develop Section Using the information you have obtained from the principal mentor and information from School Profile and Current State( Case Study of the Trenton School Preferably Dunn Middle school), write an essay in which you justify what is going well in the school and where there is evidence that indicates gaps or needs for improvement. These may be outcomes or goals the school has already identified, or they may be outcomes or goals that students have identified as needing attention to bring the school to a desirable state.
Include data where appropriate and available, and a discussion of the assumptions and limitations due to incomplete or unavailable information, and justify your stance.
Where it is possible to do so, relate your assessments in the various categories to the ISLLC standards.

Please take into consideration that this is a school with very little parent involvement,high poverty rate, high volume of crime in neighborhood,low student achievement,highly populated with Latino and African american students,

Goals: to higher student achievement, create professional learning communities, etc. ( Any obvious goals of an inner city school district)
Customer is requesting that (johnfitz44) completes this order.

Taking the view that there is no school so perfect it cannot be improved upon; write an essay in which you justify what is going well in the school and where there is evidence that indicates gaps or needs for improvement. These may be outcomes or goals the school has already identified, or they may be outcomes or goals that students have identified as needing attention to bring the school to a desirable state.
(b) Include data where appropriate and available, and a discussion of the assumptions and limitations due to incomplete or unavailable information, and justify your stance.
(c) Where it is possible to do so, relate your assessments in the various categories to the ISLLC standards.
I will be sending you information that may be able to help you- school profile and another paper-
Essay should pertain to Dunn Middle School in Trenton New Jersey
- Things that have been working- we now have a designated School Culture and Climate leader- we also now have data leader- more resources- more professional development- full time parent liason- better technology for the staff and students ??"computer Ipads
Needs of improvement- student achievement??"scores are low??"we need more parent involvement-attendence--- any improvement that poverty stricken rough inner city school would face--

There are faxes for this order.

Customer is requesting that (johnfitz44) completes this order.

1. Summarize what is the most interesting and the most alarming data provided in the .pdf attached below.

http://www.ncchild.org/sites/default/files/2011_Children%20in%20the%20Recession-Action%20for%20Children%20North%20Carolina_0.pdf

2. Based on the summary of data listed below what are the most promising and the most alarming data discovered overall about the school district. Also, are there any incorrect assumptions that outsiders might draw from looking at the data that everyone should know?

a). Summary of the information under the ?Source of Funds."

Sources of funds for district are Local at $1,185.57 which is approximately $800.00 less than the state average. Our funds from ?State? resources are around $7000.00 which is about $2000.00 dollars more that the state average. Our ?Federal? funds are about $1900.00 and are above the state average of $1341.32.

b). Summary of the information under the topic ?Student Performance Data By Student Groups"

The ?Performance of Each Student Group on the ABCs End-of-Grade Tests? breaks down to males at 68.8% for the district which is .2% more than the state average. For females the district average is 65.6% and is 1.0% above the state average. The average of Hispanic, American Indian, E.D. and N.E.D all where at least 10.0% above the state average for scores on the end-of-course test. Our students with disabilities are at 37.5% which is above the state average of 34.4%

The ?Performance of Each Student Group on the ABCs End-of-Course Tests? breaks down to males at 74.4% for the district which is 4.0% less than the state average. For females the district average is 83.8% and is 2.8% above the state average. Hispanic, American Indian, E.D. and N.E.D all where at least 5.0% above the state average. Our students with disabilities are at 36.4% which is below the state average of 45.0%

c). Summary of the information on the topics "Suspensions / Attendance / Access to Books and Technology / Parent Involvement"

The ? Student Out-of-School Suspensions & Expulsions? which is the average number of short-term (10 days or less) and long-term (more than 10 days) out-of-school suspensions and expulsions per 100 students per school is Elementary short-term 2.87, Middle 6.32 and High school 6.21. There was not any expulsion and only .28 long-term at the High School level.
?School Attendance? average percentage of students attending school daily at Elementary School is 94% which is 1% below the state average. At Middle and High School the percentage is 94% which is 1% below state average.

d). Summary of the information on the topics ?Teacher Turnover / Principals by Demographic Groups / Principal Turnover."

The ?Teacher Turnover Rate? which is the percentage of classroom teachers who left their school district from March of the prior year to March of the current year for the district is Elementary 7%, Middle school 0% and High School 13%. Elementary and Middle are below state average and High school is the same as state average.

The percentage of principals in each demographic group is white males for all schools which is more than the state averages of 40 to 50%. The percentage of principals employed last year who are no longer employed in the same district this year is 0% compared to the state average of 9%.

3. On the basis of your examination of state level and county level data, develop a 10-item priority list of programs/tools/strategies/etc. that have been associated with raising student achievement and/or recommended to advance children's well being and social welfare that would BEST address the issues raised in the above data. The 10 programs/tools/strategies/etc. should be the ones that would be MOST helpful (if implemented at this school) to close the 'gaps' identified in the data compiled. The rank ordering of the 10 strategies/recommendations should also be based on those living and teaching in this community; it will necessarily be an "educated guess? about what would really work in the county based on the challenges identified in the information compiled.

Will Cooperative Learning Have a Significantly Positive Impact on Smaller or Larger Classes?

(Here are my materials)- Everything can be chnaged EXCEPT th Action Research question.

Please feel free to call (516)807-4288 or email me at [email protected]

Table of Contents

I. Action Research Question..?????????.??..page

II. Abstract ???????????????????page

III. Introduction
Research Rationale ??????????????.. page

Background?????????????????.. page

Importance of Study.?????????????? page

Definition of Terms ??????????????. page

Statement of Problem ?????????????.. page

IV. Review of Literature????????????.?... page


V. Methods??????????????????.?page


VI. References?????????????????? page







Action Research Question

Will cooperative learning have a significantly positive impact on smaller or larger classes?

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate if cooperative learning will have a significantly positive impact on smaller or larger classes. In order to have valid results, I used both my largest and smallest classes as my sampling. I also incorporated a variety of teaching styles with cooperative learning to promote student participation and achievement. Results will be based on quiz and test scores, as well as cooperative assignments.


Introduction Research Rationale

As educators in middle school and high school classrooms, content specialty teachers often work with a variety of class sizes. Yet, with such an assortment of class sizes, there are also extraneous variables that each teacher must consider in order to foster individual achievement. Participation and achievement are variables of the individual students that weigh heavily on class success and are affected by class size. Educational mandates, as well as individual school district policies and requirements, are also influencing the class size and affecting individual achievement. The middle school and high school content specialty teachers are frequently searching for new ways to prevent individual achievement and participation from falling when class sizes rise. The varying number of students that content specialty teachers see from class to class, they are driven to seek out alternative methods to meet the needs of their learners in order to maintain individual success and achievement while promoting participation. Therefore, smaller class sizes may be an effective way to encourage students to participate and promote individual achievement.


Introduction Background
For the past two years, class sizes have gradually climbed within the school district in which I am currently working. The Long Island school district primarily includes students from low socio-economic backgrounds. Like many similar urban schools, my school district suffers from poverty, a large minority population, low test scores, a high number of discipline referrals, and many students who aren?t learning to read. Union contracts often stipulated maximum class sizes; however, even before the expansion of collective bargaining took place, there was wide spread agreement that having more than thirty students in a class is a heavy burden for a conscientious teacher - especially for a middle or high school teacher who has five or six classes. This is the first year that my district has no cap size on the number of students permitted in a classroom each period. Because of this new guideline, I see as many as thirty-two students one period and as few as twenty-one another period. Such numbers present difficulty in maintaining classroom management, teaching style, assessment, classroom configuration, and materials. But by far with classes as large as thirty-two students, a teacher?s concern is participation and individual achievement. The challenge is to hold the interest and promote achievement of thirty-two students in a classroom that is overcrowded at times and lacks sufficient seating.

Introduction Importance of Study
It is essential that all students receive individualized attention in some form. Whether it is via participating and sharing ideas, positive reinforcement, a conference, or working one-on-one, none of these are easily accomplished within a large or oversized class. It is essential for successful learning to maintain small class sizes in order to achieve individual student participation.

Introduction Definition of Terms
Cooperative learning is a term for representing a variety of interactive groups working toward a common goal. Each student in a cooperative group is individually accountable for the entire group?s success. Cooperative learning groups contain students of mixed abilities, different genders, as well as different cultural backgrounds.
The average class size within this particular school is 27 students. For research purposes within this study, a small class will consist of less than 25 students and a large class will consist of more than 30 students. Classes are heterogeneously mixed, containing students of mixed learning abilities, different genders, and cultural backgrounds.


Introduction Statement of Problem
This action research project investigates the influence of cooperative learning on class size. This study examines how cooperative learning impacts smaller and larger class sizes.



Review of Literature
The purpose of class size reduction is to raise student achievement. Classes of varying sizes have presented teachers with the challenge of providing appropriate opportunities for participation while attempting to maintain achievement.
A reduction in class size alone does not always lead to high student performance because the teacher is an essential part of the puzzle and he or she must practice effective teaching strategies.
There are three factors that determine teacher effectiveness and qualities of a less effective teacher: Instructional orientation, management style, and individualized focus. Instructional orientation includes the type of content that the teacher emphasized in his or her lessons and how they are taught. Management style encompasses how the teachers disciplined their students and organized their lessons.
The final factor, individualization, is comprised of how much time and energy the teachers spend on individual, one-to-one instruction. There are many research experiments nationally known for supporting a reduction in class size. The federal government and 20 states within the United States have launched programs to lower the average class size (Zahorik, Halbach, Ehrle, and Molnar 2003).
One well-known research project is Project STAR-Student Teacher Achievement Ratio was a controlled experiment done in Tennessee, and has been widely recognized and acknowledged by a variety of educational researchers, economists, and statisticians. It is assumed that small class sizes are more effective because there is an improvement in morale and enjoyment of teaching shared by teachers of small classes (Finn 2002). Project STAR has been used as a model by groups such as the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the U.S. Department of Education as it was conducted in a complex setting represented by public schools.
SAGE, Wisconsin?s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education, is another well-recognized research project regarding class size. The SAGE findings are reviewed over a period of five years: Overall, SAGE students scored higher than did the comparison group on the reading, language arts, and mathematics subtests. These results showed a 25-30 percent higher level of academic achievement than their counterparts in larger classes, which were maintained for three years or the length of the program.
A few major questions were raised, regardless of the fact that an overall pattern of research points to the positive effects of class-size reduction on student learning and on teaching behaviors. These questions include: 1) How big is the SAGE effect on achievement? 2) Does SAGE reduce the achievement gap between African Americans and whites? 3) Are the benefits of SAGE limited to disadvantaged students? 4) How much does SAGE benefit students with poor attendance? (Smith, Molnar, and Zahorik 2003).
SAGE affects student achievement. On the basis of the norm groups? predicted performance, the difference translates into a 25-30 percent of a year?s growth, a significant gain that supports SAGE?s claim to improving student achievement.
Class size reduction benefits all students, but its effects are especially powerful for African Americans. African Americans entering small classes had lower reading and math scores than African Americans entering larger classes in comparison schools. But by the end of the school year, their achievement scores were significantly higher than those of the African American students in larger classes. African American students seem to profit more from the SAGE experience than white students when compared with non-SAGE students. The achievement gap between African Americans and white students widens each year (Smith, et.al. 2003).
It has been noted that class size initiatives have enjoyed wide spread support from parents, teachers, and the general public. People will still believe that smaller class sizes are a good idea and teachers report experiencing lower levels of stress and job dissatisfaction with smaller classes. This is primarily because they are better engaged with each student, and therefore, student motivation increases and discipline problems decrease. Parents believe that a teacher?s individualized instruction leads to improvements in a child?s academic performance. This is apparent because teachers with smaller classes have more time to interact with parents, and their knowledge of their students strengthens within those interactions (Gilman and Kiger 2003). In some districts, the economy is the deciding factor in maintaining the status quo or increasing class size. The cost is often too high for school districts struggling with budget cuts, although the research supports reducing class size.
The decision to reduce class size does not assure that qualified teachers and appropriate classrooms will be available. Policymakers face serious challenges presented by America?s out-of-date school buildings and the growing shortage of superior teachers. State officials from California to New York have been threatening to cut back their substantial class size reduction programs in the face of declining state revenues. The National Governors Association (NGA) estimates that approximately 44 states currently face revenue deficits. In the past, declining revenues for elementary and secondary education certainly lead to fewer fully qualified teachers and larger class sizes. Congress weighed in on the issue of reducing class size in 1998 when it funded a down payment on a Class Size Reduction program that would reduce class size by hiring 100,000 new and qualified teachers over seven years. Calculating the cost of a statewide Class Size Reduction program involves considering a number of ingredients. Initial average class size needs to be considered. The larger the drop to ?small? classes, the greater the cost will be. Whether or not there is a rigid cap or flexibility in the number of students per teacher. A rigid cap will increase the cost by decreasing the final average class size. Schools will keep numbers down to ensure staying below the cap. Also to be considered in a budget for a CSR program is the cost of teachers hired. This depends on the salary scale of each district and the experience level of teachers hired. Teacher costs will increase with time as teachers move up the salary ladder. The costs of teacher support may also need to be factored in. In addition to these ingredients, in planning and creating a budget for a CSR program, one needs to consider the cost of facilities for providing new classrooms. The National Education Association currently supports a class size of 15 students in regular education programs and even smaller in programs for students with special needs. Teachers with small classes can spend time and energy helping each child succeed. Smaller classes also enhance safety, discipline and order within the classroom.
The American Federation of Teachers cites four necessary steps in order for class size reduction to be effective. The AFT suggests that the most effective classes should be between 15 and 19 students. Particular schools, especially those with low-achieving and low-income students, should be targeted. In order for class reduction to be most effective, it is essential that there is an adequate supply of qualified teachers and classroom supplies. In addition to increasing student achievement, the AFT recommends that smaller classes improve the classroom atmosphere so that students receive more individualized attention and teachers have flexibility to use different instructional approaches. With fewer students in a classroom, students are less probable to distract each other and there will be a lower level of noise. In addition to increasing student achievement, smaller classes enable teachers to know the students better and offer more extra help; recognizing learning problems, special educational needs and achievements. Smaller classes facilitate an increase in student achievement with fewer discipline problems. According to the American Federation of Teachers, by spending less time on discipline, teachers report spending more time on instruction.
The benefits of class reduction in the early grades last throughout a student?s educational career. In 4th, 6th, and 8th grade, students who attended small classes in the early grades were significantly ahead of their regular-class peers in all subjects. By 8th grade, they were still ahead almost a full year ahead of their peers. The Class Size Matters Organization believes that smaller classes are a very cost-effective strategy to lower the number of students who have to repeat grades. In the Tennessee STAR study, only 15 inner-city students placed in small classes in early grades were retained through the 9th grade, compared to 44% of those from similar backgrounds in regular size classes. In high school, students who had been in smaller classes in the early grades had significantly lower dropout rates, higher grades, and received higher scores on their college entrance exams.
The Class Size Matters Organization reiterates what many other studies have also stated: with smaller class sizes, behavior problems are significantly reduced. In New York City, a principal in East Harlem reported that disciplinary referrals dropped 60% in her school one year when they instituted smaller classes. In Burke County, North Carolina, disciplinary problems and interruptions declined by more than 25% after class sizes were reduced. Lower rates of disruption and behavior problems have also been reported in Indiana and California. A survey by Public Agenda shows that among teachers themselves, smaller class sizes are seen as the most effective way to increase the quality of instruction, far above raising salaries or providing more professional development. The Class Size Matters Organization mentions that reducing class size improves teacher morale because less time is spent on discipline and classroom management. This enables the teachers to focus more on learning and individualized instruction. Smaller classes also lead to improved teacher retention. However, smaller classes have been shown to have benefits that go far beyond higher test scores. Reduced class size also leads to more parent volunteers in the classroom, and more parent involvement overall. Teachers explain that with smaller classes they have the ability to get to know both their students and their parents. Also possible with small classes, teachers are able to keep closer communication with parents about their children?s


Methods
The setting for this action research is a public middle school in Nassau County, New York. This is a suburban school, which educates grades five through eight. This researcher has been employed within the district for four years and presently holds the position of a seventh and eighth grade social studies teacher, for both regular and inclusion classes. This researcher?s class sizes range from twenty-one to thirty-two students. It is this researcher?s objective to find out if class size has a significant effect on cooperative learning.
This study will incorporate two social studies classes, the largest and the smallest, and compare/contrast their results. The class will be using a cooperative learning model to engage student learning. Each member in the expert and home groups will be given assigned jobs to aid in the preparation and clean up. These jobs will be rotated daily. This teaching style will be done in an on/off rotation: Cooperative learning will take place on each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday during the ten-week cycle; the ?off? cycle days will be designated to other forms of learning such as technology based and teacher-centered. The students will be divided using the Jigsaw model of cooperative learning in which each cooperative group is divided into two groups: ?home? and ?expert,? both grouped heterogeneously by ability level and gender. Each home group will be given an assignment. All members of the home group are also being assigned a specific task; Students in the class with the same task will meet in their expert groups. When completed, the experts will return to their home group to share information. Members will be evaluated on the combined knowledge of expert and home groups.
Forms of assessment will include daily assignments as well as a weekly quiz/test given on Friday. The researcher will use varied types of questioning to elicit participation using Bloom?s Taxonomy during both ?on? and ?off? cycle days. During each day of cooperative learning, students will be responsible for handing in an independent assignment as well as a group assignment. These will be checked and graded for participation and assessment of material. Students will be responsible for completing weekly assignments and will be assessed in the form of a quiz or test each Friday.
This data will be collected and analyzed to create a graph demonstrating the participation and achievement levels of each class. The researcher will develop a rubric, which can then be used for future reference. As a teacher, class size usually has a great effect on teaching. By using the data analysis as a tool, it can not only help prepare one for classes to come, but perhaps also show others the positive and negative outcomes that class size has.
As compared to students in large classes, students in small classes are more engaged and experience more participatory, enriched, and hands-on work. Within smaller classes, teachers interact more with individual students, are able to give more feedback, spend more time instructing rather than disciplining, and enjoy higher morale (Deutsch, 2003). In order to bring this environment, I have chosen to implement a cooperative learning model.






Methods
Cooperative Learning Rules
1. Successful students outcome depends on other members of the group.
2. Students will show respect for individual differences (culture, academic ability, gender, etc.).
3. Individual students are responsible for a portion of the group?s task.
4. The teacher and student will evaluate accountability.
*Student?s will adhere to general classroom rules: staying on task, talking in indoor voices, raising their hands to get the teacher?s attention, etc.










Methods
Pre-Instructional Skills
Students will be able to accomplish the following:
? Form groups quietly
? Stay in groups
? Use quiet voices
? Speak clearly
? Listen actively
? Ask for help
? Address others by appropriate names
? Encouraging statements
? Praise others
? Be able to paraphrase
? Criticize ideas, not people
? Extend answers
? Check answers
? Ask questions

Methods
Roles of the Teacher
The teacher will do the following:
? Allow time for non-academic group activity
? Teach and model group skills
? Select content
? Plan and discuss rubrics for grading
? Assign the students groups and roles
? Facilitate, not dominate
? Plan learning environment

Method

Student Jobs While in Cooperative Learning Groups

RECORDER = Will write down the group?s responses
RESEARCHER = Will research material via handouts, the Internet, and other available resources
MATERIALS COORDINATOR = Will gathers and return appropriate materials to and from the materials table
LEADER = Will read directions to the group and make sure that everyone is on task


References
?Missing the Mark? by Jeremy D. Finn; available in Phi Delta Kappan. November 2002: v.84, no.3
?Class Size Reduction: A Fresh Look at the Data? by Phil Smith, Alex Molnar and John Zahorik; available in Educational Leadership September 2003: v. 61, no.1
?Teaching Practices for Smaller Classes? by John Zahorik, Anke Halbach, Karen Ehrle, and Alex Molnar; available in Educational Leadership September 2003: v.61, no. 7
?Should We Try to Keep Class Sizes Small?? by David Alan Gilman and Susan Kiger; available in Educational Leadership April 2003: v.60, no.7
?How Small Classes Benefit High School Students? by Francine M. Deutsch; available in National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin June 2003: v.87
?Class Size Matters? available at www.picket.com/class/research.htm
?Class Size Reduction: Success Stories Noted in New Report? available at www.education-world.com/a_issues/issues067.shtml
?Does Class Size Matter in Public Schools?? available at www.psparents.net/Class%20Size.htm
?Smaller Class Sizes Help Blacks More, Study Says? available at www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m1355/15_99/72610378/p1/article.jhtml
?Class Size Reduction? available at www.ed.gov/offices/OESE/ClassSize/myths.html

Write a plan for an elementary school incorporating all the traits from the "7 Common Traits Observed in Successful Schools."

The 7 traits are:
1. Strong Leadership
2. Positive belief and teacher dedication
3. Data utilization and analysis
4. Effective scheduling
5. Professional development
6. Scientifically based intervention programs
7. Parent involvement

At the end of the plan include an overall reflection with at least three major points pertaining to the actions to be taken in the classroom to ensure that the students are receiving the instruction they need.

Just a few sentences on each of the 7 traits will be fine.

Please number the sentences as you write about each one.

Individual Reflection Essay
Write an essay describing how the ISLLC 2008 standards (Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortiums standards) pertain to leadership behavior at the institution where you work or where you intend to work.

Consider the following:
Identify and describe three major challenges facing the leadership at your school and the ISLLC standards they reflect. Propose possible solutions based on the ISLLC standards.

I work in an inner city school district in New Jersey-here are some challenges but feel free to add what you might think are some additional challenges
- low parent involvement
- the school culture and climate is not where it should be due to low poverty neighborhood, gangs,etc.
- students not being able to pass state exams because of an unorganized curriculum and students with very low basic skills.
-poor technology resources
What is the purpose of the standards and how do they impact that educational community?
discuss how the ISLLC standards will guide or benefit you in becoming a principal one day.

Hi John,

This paper is linked to the current paper that you are working on for me (order A2015823). The text that I am using is:

Gay, L.R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. W. (2009) Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. (9th. Ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN-10: 0135035015


ASSIGNMENT:
Select two methodologies of data collection for the topic you are researching (Parent Involvement in Elementary Schools) for your Literature review. Describe each methodology and one way that you will address validity of the methodology. The paper should be 2 pages in length.

Customer is requesting that (johnfitz44) completes this order.

Customer is requesting that (johnfitz44) completes this order.

Critique this Journal Article: (What are the implications of this point of view for classroom instruction and are these ideas/strategies feasible for a particular classroom, can they be adapted, alter, or incorporated to benefit students with disabilities?).

TITLE: Cultural Models of Transition: Latina Mothers of Young Adults With Developmental Disabilities
SOURCE: Exceptional Children 71 no4 401-14 Summ 2005

ROBERT RUEDA
LILIA MONZO
JOHANNA SHAPIRO
JUAN GOMEZ
JAN BLACHER


ABSTRACT
This study used several focus groups to examine culturally based variation in attitudes, beliefs, and meanings of transition. Sixteen Latina mothers of young adults with disabilities participated in the study, recruited from an agency serving low-income, predominantly Spanish-speaking communities. Data analysis identified five primary themes: (a) basic life skills and social adaptation, (b) the importance of the family and home rather than individualism and independence, (c) the importance of the mother's role and expertise in decision making, (d) access to information; and (e) dangers of the outside world. The overarching theme was a view of transition as home-centered, sheltered adaptation as opposed to a model emphasizing independent productivity. The findings and the implications for future research and practice are discussed.
Transition is an important part of the service system for students with developmental disabilities, a period during which young adults prepare for life beyond mandatory schooling (Blacher, 2001). During this time, decisions about living arrangements, further schooling, work placements, and the like must be made primarily by the young adult (whenever possible) with the input of teachers, school personnel, service agency representatives, and parents (Kramer & Blacher, 2001).
Despite the key role of transition as both a construct and a process in the service delivery system, little is known about culturally based variations in attitudes, beliefs, and meanings of transition for those involved. The present article begins to address this gap by providing a qualitative look at these areas from a group of Latina mothers of young adults with disabilities. Before reporting on the study, we provide a brief review of the concept of transition, and then discuss the role of cultural issues and why a cultural perspective is needed in the field.


THE CONCEPT OF TRANSITION
Transition reflects a service delivery focus on the pursuit of a productive, independent life (Rusch & Menchetti, 1988), including domains such as career choices, future social relationships, and living arrangements (Halpern, 1985). Beginning no later than age 14, each student now must have included in the individualized education program (IEP) a statement of the transition services that he or she needs in order to prepare for such postschool outcomes as employment, postsecondary education, adult services, independent living, and community participation (IDEA Amendments, 1997), although the actual process of transition can take place anytime from ages 14 to about 26.


AMBIGUITY, VARIATION, AND ALTERNATIVE VIEWS OF TRANSITION
Transition planning for young adults with disabilities can be more complex and ambiguous than that involving nondisabled persons, the most obvious difference being that transition decisions for nondisabled young adults are generally informal processes that occur within the locus of the family, and interaction with larger social systems (i.e., colleges, workplace) are to some extent voluntary. Nondisabled adolescents and teenagers gradually assume responsibilities and roles that result in increasing independence, and transition to adulthood is often marked by specific life events (going away to college, marriage, employment, moving from home). Although there may be variance, the general expectation is that a nondisabled young adult will become independent from the family at some point. Successful transition of the young adult with disabilities, however, is less clearly delineated and is predicated on the notion of life-long support from family members, advocates, and/or agencies.
Transition for both persons with and without disabilities may be further complicated when cultural differences are involved (Blacher, 2001; Harry, Rueda, & Kalyampur, 1999; Lehmann & Roberto, 1996). For example, there is some evidence of cultural variation regarding "normal" childrearing or family practices for young adults without disabilities (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Maga?a, 1999). In the special education literature, studies have shown variation in the meaning attached to disability (Blacher, 2001; Geenen, Powers, & Lopez-Vasquez, 2001; Harry, 1992a; Kalyanpur & Harry, 1999) and to service delivery systems and the values embedded in them (Chavira, Lopez, Blacher, & Shapiro, 2000; Gomez & Shapiro, 2000) from different cultural perspectives. This work suggests caution in assuming the universality of values such as development, life outcomes, family structures and roles, parenting, independence, and individual achievement apart from one's nuclear family that may be implied in discussions of the concepts of normalization and least restrictive environment.
An alternative view is that the notion of transition can be seen as a social construction, highly symbolic in ways that go beyond the more mundane issues related to living arrangements and economic support. A culturally relative framework allows for variance in the underlying values that define what is normal and desirable as well as in the timing and degree of expected developmental changes.
A small body of work investigated the issue of transition in different cultural settings. Shapiro, Monzo, Rueda, Gomez, and Blacher (2004) described Latina mothers' perspectives related to the service delivery system surrounding transition. Primary concerns of these mothers included (a) poor communication with service providers, (b) low effort on the part of service providers, (c) negative attitudes of professionals toward client-children, and (d) negative treatment of parents by professionals. Although these mothers adopted a role of advocacy for their offspring, they did so in an alienated rather than a collaborative fashion because of lack of trust and disillusionment with how they and their children were treated. The study also documented the mothers' belief in their role as central to the-well-being of their children.
In another study, Harry (1998) followed seven culturally diverse families over a 4-year period, focusing on socialization patterns and social pathways of family members with a disability. Harry documented the strong sense of family and family decision making that cut across all of the participants. Expectations for children's development were closely tied to cultural assumptions about child rearing, family structure, and sibling responsibility. In addition, families' values were discrepant with values espoused in the field in general and in legislation in particular around areas such as personal choice, friendships, independence, and equality of opportunity. Although there was important variation among even the small number of families studied, Harry suggested that a "normal life" is a highly culturally influenced concept about which the families held differing expectations compared with those for other children without a disability.
It is unclear if the variance in values and practices among different groups described in these studies reflect economic, class, cultural, or other influences, but it is clear that views about the underlying values vary. On the one hand, seemingly universal assumptions and meanings regarding transition may be inappropriate when applied to diverse populations (Geenen et al., 2001; Meier-Kronick, 1993). On the other hand, there is danger in making inferences about individuals based on group membership. This issue is briefly addressed in the following section.


A NOTE ON CULTURAL MODELS, CULTURAL PRACTICES, AND CONTEXT
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) described cultural models as shared mental schema or normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work, including what is valued and ideal, what settings should be enacted and avoided, who should participate, the rules of interaction, and the purpose of interactions. With respect to services for persons with developmental disabilities and their families, such models would help define what is normal, expected, and appropriate.
One problem with discussions of culturally based beliefs and values is that often these are treated as stable, context-free, and pervasive among all members of a group. This presumed homogeneity fails to capture the dynamic nature of cultural beliefs and also fails to account for the variability often seen among members of the same cultural, ethnic, or racial group. However, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) noted that even though a group may appear homogenous and may widely share similar cultural models, these shared models can produce varying cultural practices among members of the same group, depending on features of specific social contexts, and these need to be differentiated. In the present study, we focused on common themes in Latina mothers' cultural models related to transition, but did not focus on cultural practices.


WHY ARE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IMPORTANT?
A major reason for focusing on variations in assumptions, beliefs, and values is the increasingly diverse population as well as different outcomes among groups. The recent Twenty-fourth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) documented that the racial, cultural, and language backgrounds of students in America's schools have changed dramatically in recent decades. This is also reflected in the population of students with disabilities. The report noted that Hispanic students exhibited the largest increase, being half again as large in 2001 as in 1987 (14% vs. 9%). There was more than a fourfold increase in the percentage of students with disabilities who did not use primarily English at home (3% to 14%). Thus, growing numbers of students with disabilities face the challenges of communicating in two languages and accommodating two cultures, in addition to the challenges posed by their disabilities (U.S. Department of Education).
Failure of the service delivery system to account for this diversity in values and beliefs may make transition more difficult for some groups than for others. The National Longitudinal Study (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996), for example, revealed that African American and Latino youth with disabilities had greater difficulty than European American youth with disabilities finding employment, and when they did work, earned significantly less than European American workers. Given these circumstances, it is important to more closely examine variation among different groups in order to refine the concept of transition and the service delivery system that reflects it. Work to date suggests that culturally relevant issues need to be documented and considered in order to facilitate the widest possible access to services for all members of society.


PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Although work such as Harry's (1992a, 1998) examined developmental disability and service delivery issues from a cross-cultural perspective, little work has been done on culturally based differences specifically on transition for students with disabilities and their families. In order to add to what is known about this issue, we conducted a qualitative study of Latina mothers' views of transition and transition-related issues and compared these views with the explicit and implicit assumptions in the current regulations and practices involved around the concept of transition and transition planning. We explored a wide range of participants' views of transition and the transition planning process. We used these responses to identify common themes in the cultural models regarding transition-related issues of these Latina mothers.


METHOD


PARTICIPANTS
Although the 16 mothers who participated in our study were Latina mothers of young adults with developmental disabilities, and all lived in low-income predominantly Latino and Chicano communities of the East Los Angeles area, it is important to note the diversity of the participants who fell under this umbrella. Two came originally from Ecuador, 1 from Peru, and the remainder had emigrated from Mexico except for 2 who were born in the United States. The immigrant mothers had lived in the United States for some time (between 8 and 40 years). Spanish was the primary language of 14 of the mothers. The other 2 spoke Spanish but seemed more comfortable speaking in English. Their ages ranged between 35 and 68. Their education levels varied. Seven had completed 1 to 6 years of education, 3 had completed 7 to 8 years of education, 2 had completed some high school, and 4 had some higher education either at the college level or at a trade school. Ten of the 16 mothers were married. Only 4 out of the 16 mothers were employed. Although Latinos are often seen as a homogenous group, there is often significant variability in country of origin, length of time in the United States, language proficiency and use, education, employment, marital status, and so forth. Thus, the variability among this group was not unexpected.
In age, their sons and daughters ranged between 14 and 31 years. All 16 young adults had severe disabilities and lived at home with their parent(s). Based on maternal reports, 7 were diagnosed with Down syndrome, 4 with autism, 3 with mental retardation (unspecified), 1 with pachygyria (a genetic disorder), and one with microcephaly. Nine had not yet completed their transition programs, whereas 7 had already transitioned, or exited, out of the school system.
We recruited participants through a non-profit community organization that provides support services to families of children with developmental disabilities. A staff member from the agency who had close interaction with the families served assisted in recruiting Latino parents who had children between 14 and 25 years of age with severe developmental disabilities, our initial target range based on our estimate of the approximate age range during which issues of transition would be salient. However, in order to secure a sample with the number and types of young adults we sought (students with severe disabilities), we went slightly above the initial target age range. Participants received a $40 honorarium immediately following their participation. Although no emphasis was placed on which parent was sought in our recruitment efforts (or perhaps because of this), we secured participation only from mothers.


FOCUS GROUP AS A METHOD OF RESEARCH
Focus groups involve informal discussion among a small group of participants who are asked to express their viewpoints or opinions on a particular topic about which they have special expertise or life experience. The objective is to explore experiences and beliefs rather than to reach consensus (Carney et al., 1998). They can be particularly useful in encouraging participants to provide candid, complete, and in-depth responses. Because responses from participants are shared or discussed, more diverse, and often more nuanced, opinions are gathered than what would be possible to obtain with an individual interview.


DATA PROTOCOL AND COLLECTION
The research team used a question protocol (Shapiro et al., 2004), translated by a Latina member of the team who was familiar with the local community, and this translation was then reviewed by other bilingual team members. Themes addressed included participants' definitions of transition, involvement with social service agencies, their rights to support services, the impact of transition on the young adolescent with severe disabilities and his or her family, differences and similarities of transition between children with severe disabilities and their nondisabled siblings, and out-of-home placement.
A familiar and comfortable setting was sought for the meetings; and a back room in a local church was identified by the community agency that assisted in recruiting participants. Focus groups were conducted approximately 2 weeks apart. Each one was about 3 hr in duration.
Three focus groups were conducted. The first group included 4 participants and was conducted bilingually, with much code switching (Zentella, 1997) and repetition in both languages. Only 2 participants of the 6 recruited arrived for the second focus group, held entirely in Spanish. The third focus group had 10 participants, a larger than optimal size that was related to over-recruitment based on the experience with the second group. A bilingual Latina doctoral student with experience conducting qualitative interviews and focus groups with other Latinas/os from similar communities facilitated all three focus groups. A second bilingual Latino researcher, who was also present at all of the focus groups, took careful field notes while the discussion was taking place.
Focus group discussions were primarily informal in nature. Following recommendations by other cross-cultural researchers to adopt a recursive, open-ended approach in interviewing (Blakely, 1982) and an innovative interviewing style with elements of "la platica" (social conversation; Moll, Rueda, Reza, Herrera, & Vasquez, 1976), the interviewer willingly engaged in discussions with participants of issues not directly related to the research project and proceeded at the pace and response sequence of the respondents. All focus groups were audio recorded and later transcribed and translated verbatim. The bilingual members of the research team reviewed all transcripts for accuracy


DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis took place simultaneously with data collection. Debriefing sessions were held after each focus group session to begin to identify categories and themes in the data. In addition, written transcripts were reviewed several times by all investigators.
Transcript data were compared both within and across groups. Initial ideas, themes, and categories were first identified using open coding (Vaughn, Schumm, & Sinagub, 1996), then fractured and recoded using axial coding to make connections between categories and subcategories that reflected more generalized themes and patterns. Finally, themes were used to form a grounded theory (selective coding) that clarified concepts and allowed for interpretations and conclusions (Gilgun, Daly, & Handel, 1992). The goal of analysis was to identify patterns, make comparisons, and contrast one set of data with another in order to explore the cultural models and issues surrounding transition for these Latina mothers.


MAJOR THEMES
Data analysis identified five primary themes surrounding transition for these participants: (a) basic life skills and social adaptation, (b) the importance of the family and home rather than individualism and independence, (c) the importance of the mother's role and expertise in decision making, (d) access to information, and (e) dangers of the outside world. The overarching theme that emerged from the data was mothers' view of transition as home-centered, sheltered adaptation as opposed to a model emphasizing independent productivity. Each of these issues, as well as the overarching construct, is discussed in more detail in the following section.


A FOCUS ON BASIC LIFE SKILLS AND SOCIAL ADAPTATION
The emphasis of the analysis was on exploring participants' definitions and associations with the term transition. A consistent theme was Latina mothers' salient concerns for their sons' and daughters' continued development of basic life skills. Although work placements and employment considerations were addressed, they were primarily seen as a vehicle for continuing school placement and further development of basic life skills. These mothers placed a high priority on the development of life skills such as bathing, fixing light meals, and so forth. However, the development of these skills was not discussed in terms of a final goal of independent living, but rather in terms of increased independence with respect to hygiene and personal self-help in the context of existing living and care arrangements. As the following (translated) example suggests, mothers were clear that they were primarily concerned that their young adults with disabilities become more self-sufficient in terms of their personal needs. Olga, "I want her to wash her own plates, make her bed, take a bath, daily things that she can do by herself. I would like her to learn how to cook, just small things."
A related subtheme for these mothers was a strong preoccupation regarding their young adult's social development, especially ways to handle relationships with the opposite sex, sexual curiosity or feelings, and aspects of developing friendships. For example, one mother explained the frustration and ambivalence she felt about her son's growing sexual curiosity and her fear that he might not realize that this is a private matter; she worried how he might handle this curiosity at his work placement where she was not present. Another mother expressed concern over her daughter's growing romantic feelings for her brother-in-law. She explained that she had tried many times explaining to her that her brother-in-law was her sister's husband and that he cared for her like a sister. However, the daughter did not seem to understand the differences in feelings or how to act appropriately with the brother-in-law. A problem perceived by the mothers was that their young adults were increasingly showing interest in romance and in social activities such as going to parties, and they discussed a need for support in handling these issues.


INDEPENDENCE AND THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY AND HOME
For the mothers in the focus groups, the marker for independence and the time for their children to make their own decisions was not when they left school and entered young adulthood, but rather when they left home, a developmental milestone primarily associated with marriage. Until such time, mothers felt that their children were not free to make their own decisions merely because they might be adults under the law. The notion of having one's young adult go off on his or her own was not part of the mindset of these mothers, irrespective of whether a developmental disability was involved, and this value was often referenced to their own experiences growing up, as illustrated in the following (translated):


Olga: Never. I have never said that to my daughter. I told her, "When your own daughters are grown, never tell them to leave, because that is very Anglicized." And among Latino families, no, on the contrary, my father used to tell me, "Why do you want to be going out all the time? You have your house here."
The home was seen as the appropriate residential setting for the young adult with developmental disabilities, but it was also seen as a safe haven in the event of something happening to the mother. The care of their young adults with disabilities was viewed as the mother's own responsibility while she was alive, and the responsibility of another family member if she was no longer able to provide care. Several mothers noted plans for siblings to take over the young adult's care when the mother died, but some were unsure about their nondisabled child's willingness or ability to care for the young adult. In any case, independent living as an option for the young adult with disabilities was discussed and considered a ludicrous and inappropriate concept by most of these mothers.


THE MOTHER'S ROLE AND EXPERTISE IN DECIDING TRANSITION ISSUE
Another dominant theme was the mothers' strong belief that no one would be able to care for their children with disabilities better than they did themselves. These mothers perceived themselves as more knowledgeable about their children and better able to make decisions about work placement and living arrangements for their children than the professionals involved. The mothers' decision-making role also superseded any decision making on the part of the young adult with disabilities. Although mothers felt it was important to ask their young adults their opinion and to take their desires and preferences into consideration, mothers also felt that they--as parents--should make all final decisions about transition planning.
It is interesting to note, however, that despite their determination to maintain control of the transition decision-making process, these mothers felt that their children were often much more capable than professionals realized. Indeed, mothers often referred to their children with disabilities as "normal" or "very intelligent." For example, consider the way this mother, Reina, described her son to us (translated from Spanish):


He is a very handsome young man and he is attending the Easter Seals and his functional level is basically a moderate mental retardation, very intelligent. He has the functions, that he is a normal young man. He has been diagnosed like a boy of 6 and 8 years old, but that diagnosis was done in 1987, but I see that my boy is more mature, that is, that he doesn't represent that age.
This belief in their offspring's competence was often at odds with how professionals perceived these young adults--as only disabled, without particular strengths, and incapable of performing any meaningful life tasks, as illustrated in the following (translated):


Luisa: I sometimes think that the personnel working with our children, I think they don't treat our young children as serious.
Rosa: Yeah, I agree with you.
Luisa: Even when you hear them having a conversation like they're talking to a baby and I think that's hard, you know.
However, the important point to understand is that mothers wanted professionals to see the strengths and capacities of their children not so they could be autonomous decision makers, but so they would be treated with respect and caring. Mothers saw themselves as the appropriate decision makers and regularly complained that their expertise and experience were considered less valuable than the academic knowledge of professionals such as teachers and agency workers. For example, one mother recounted a story in which her son became very excited and aggressive with his sister (who herself was studying in the area of special education) during a family outing. The mother explained to her daughter that she knew how to manage her son best, and how to minimize his tendency toward aggression (example translated from Spanish): "Look Tere, I think that here I have something [more knowledge] over you because I know how and I tell you that when you see him nervous don't say anything to him."
The mother explained, however, that the daughter had not heeded her warning, discounting her insights, and had attempted to rush her brother thereby making him nervous in a large crowd; indeed, her son had reacted aggressively just as she feared.


ACCESS TO INFORMATION
As previously mentioned briefly, many mothers discussed needing additional information about transition issues, particularly with respect to services. We did not learn of any mothers who had been able to find services that adequately dealt with their many concerns. Some of the mothers suggested that parent groups would be especially beneficial, where they could learn from each other, discuss their particular situations, and get advice from other mothers.
The desire for access to information was based on both a desire to receive useful services relevant to their children's needs, but also on a mistrust of service providers' motives. In one focus group, for example, a point of discussion was that professionals sometimes encouraged the young adult to adopt the professionals' position regarding independent living, even though it went against the mother's beliefs.
A significant concern of these mothers was the poor communication between themselves and caseworkers, teachers, and other professionals, which was due in part to the fact that many felt that they lacked information regarding transition planning and service options. Some mothers believed that parent involvement in the transition decision-making process was only perfunctory and that many professionals preferred mothers to be less informed and less involved. As evidence for this, some mothers noted that parents lacked viable sources of information, in Spanish, regarding work placements and other transition services. Some mothers indicated that the professionals they dealt with objected to being questioned regarding the details of the services they were providing, and that they resented mothers making suggestions about the quality and type of transition services desired. The sense was that increased information would lead to empowerment in dealing with professional service providers, even though it might also have negative consequences for interactions with those same providers. As one mother articulated (untranslated):


When a parent starts getting too smart and really learning the system then you little by little become a persona non grata wherever you go because you do know the system, you do know your rights and they like resent it.
An important obstacle to parents making informed choices regarding transition seemed to be the lack of availability of information in Spanish. Yet mothers pointed out that even having materials translated into Spanish would not remove all barriers, as many immigrant mothers may not have sufficient reading skills to comprehend the often complex language used.


DANGERS OF THE OUTSIDE WORLD
A final theme was a generalized fear of the dangers of the world outside of the family setting, in particular the perceived lack of adequate supervision in work placements. Prior to the transition from school to work, most young adults were housed within the school facility; posthigh school work placements often involved activities that took them out into the community. Some mothers felt that there was significantly less supervision in these work placements than there had been at school.
Related to this concern was the possibility of discrimination against young adults with disabilities, because work placements often involved having the person with disabilities become integrated into the community with nondisabled persons, where the same levels of protection and sensitivity offered at school were not always observed. A number of stories of discrimination were shared among the mothers. They were especially concerned about their young adult's feelings, commenting that the young adults were aware of being discriminated against. The following excerpt (untranslated) provides an insight into these concerns:


Carolina: Yoli was accused one day at Pavilions of stealing because we were grocery shopping and I told Yoli, "Go and get, that tuna." So she went and, you know, she looked and these kids, they look, and they look kind of suspicious. And she always has a handbag. So, anyway, she brought the cans and put them in. And the boy that works there in the grocery part came and said that the guard had been watching her and for me to look in her bag because he felt that she had stolen something and put it in there. Well to look into her bag was quite a problem because she got offended. We showed the guy that there was nothing in there.
Luisa: They didn't let me in to Marie Callender's because Jennifer's wheelchair was taking up too much room.
Thus, for the mothers in this study, the community involvement aspects of transition often represented negative and dangerous experiences because of both insufficient supervision (compared to earlier school settings) and discrimination against persons with disabilities.


DISCUSSION
There is an implied model in the laws and policies regarding transition that assumes that the problem-solving process is collaborative, that the partners in the collaboration are well-informed and knowledgeable, and that the values and goals of all parties correspond. In addition, there is an assumption that all partners in transition value normative timelines and goals focused on independent functioning and productivity. In previously reported research (Magafia, 1999; Shapiro et al., 2004), it has been suggested that these assumptions do not hold up well, particularly from the perspective of Latina mothers. This study provides further evidence that there may be multiple perspectives on transition, some of which may conflict with the views of transition implied in various official policies and definitions. In the present study, as noted earlier, the view of transition reflected was based on a model of home-centered, sheltered adaptation as opposed to a model emphasizing independent productivity. In discussing these findings of the study, we first focus on the specific themes that emerged as well as two more general issues. These two issues concern the homogeneity in the views expressed by participants and the issue of whether the present findings are universal or culturally specific.


BASIC SKILLS AND SOCIAL ADAPTATION VERSUS PRODUCTIVE WORK
In the United States, in general, much emphasis is placed on what one does with respect to work and how one's work relates to one's identity. However, these mothers did not view employment, now or in the future, as a major aspiration for their young adults with disabilities. We found that, contrary to a common focus in the transition planning on vocational experiences and work placements, the absence of discussion about future employment in our focus groups suggested that these mothers did not consider work placements or employment as particularly pertinent issues. Rather, when employment settings were discussed, it was with reference to an extension of school and an opportunity to continue basic skills training, or else as a source of apprehension because of the perception of various dangers.


THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FAMILY AND HOME VERSUS INDIVIDUALISM AND INDEPENDENCE
Another aspect of transition planning typically includes an emphasis on the individual student's concerns and desires. This is based on the assumption of shared decision making and on the view that high school students should be involved in decision making about their own transition. However, these mothers did not speak often of issues reflecting independence or individualism, nor did they view these concepts as synonymous with young adulthood. Mothers' expectations; even for their nondisabled offspring, did not favor independent living arrangements without clearly sanctioned transition points such as marriage. Given these mothers' sentiments regarding their children without disabilities, independent or group living arrangements for their children with disabilities (an option often introduced and recommended by professionals in the course of transition planning), was inconsistent with their beliefs and values.


THE MOTHER'S ROLE AND EXPERTISE IN DECISION MAKING VERSUS THE PROFESSIONAL'S
Previous research (Shapiro et al., 2004) suggested a strong sense of dissatisfaction of Latina mothers with respect to the service delivery system and with service providers. Variance in the values and understandings of transition decision making may be partially at the root of this dissatisfaction. In these focus groups, mothers clearly felt that they had greater expertise than did professional service providers about their individual children. Moreover, the emphasis on collaborative decision making and the importance of the views of the young adult with disabilities were not as much a priority as they may have been for service providers or as implied in the law. At the same time, lack of confidence in service providers also led mothers to believe that professionals underesimated the competence of their offspring, which resulted in disrespectful and uncaring attitudes and behavior toward the children.


ACCESS TO INFORMATION AS A SAFEGUARD VERSUS A PLANNING TOOL
The desire for more information on the part of mothers was tempered by a mistrust of service providers and the service delivery system in general. Although access to information was seen as a tool to pave the way for increased services, it was also seen as a form of protection from motives of service providers that might not be in the family's best interests. This is consistent with the notion of "alienated advocacy" (Shapiro et al, 2004) in which adversarial interactions between families and service providers are based on mothers' perceptions of unfriendliness, aloofness, and lack of sympathy on the part of professionals. While on the surface it might appear that lack of access to information might be addressed by more creative outreach efforts on the part of service providers, the underlying dynamics of the concern suggest that a more fundamental issue is at stake. This is consistent with earlier work that discussed professional service providers' attitudes that devalue or dismiss parental insights and observations (Kalyanpur, 1998).


DANGERS OF THE OUTSIDE WORLD
Transition policies often seem to assume that productive involvement in the community is a critical outcome of successful transition. Yet for these mothers, successful transition was not indexed by increased interactions with the larger society. In fact, the community involvement aspects of transition often represented negative and dangerous experiences because of both perceived insufficient supervision (compared to earlier school settings) and possible discrimination against persons with disabilities. An interesting issue, not explored here, is the extent to which these beliefs and attitudes reflect these mothers' own experiences and interactions with the larger society and social institutions.
Whereas transition is often seen as a unitary phenomenon, there may be multiple dimensions or levels of transition (Harry, 1992a, 1998). As suggested earlier, for example, transition marks changes for the individual with a severe disability on at least the following dimensions: (a) social/personal development (moving from being cared for toward independence), (b) roles within the family (from child/adolescent to adult), and (c) role within the service delivery system (from student to productive worker).
A fundamental issue underlying these dimensions of transition is the target of intervention and how it changes over time. Although the service delivery system might emphasize a family focus for young children with a disability, the implied expectation is that the target would increasingly focus on the young adult with developmental disabilities. This is consistent with the goals of increased independence, productive and supportive employment, and integration into the larger community. However, this same shift did not appear in the discussions of these mothers. Rather, the focus appeared to be a consistent emphasis on the home/family, similar to what others have found (Harry, 1998). A strong view expressed was that the well-being of the family member with the disability is not separable from that of the family, and that independence is marked by shifts in specific roles of family members (such as marriage). Although transition may have represented a structural shift for the young adult with a disability (e.g., from school to work), for these mothers and families, it did not necessarily represent a role shift for the mother or young adult. With the increasing diversity represented in the special education system, it will be important to examine more systematically and in different contexts the most appropriate ways to assure the best outcomes and to achieve the "posture of reciprocity" advocated by Kalyanpur and Harry (1999, p. 498).


DISSENTING VOICES IN THE DATA
There was a strong pattern of uniformity in the responses of the participants and the themes generated through the analysis. Although this may seem unusual given the variance in the backgrounds of the mothers, it is consistent with the cultural models versus cultural practices distinction described earlier in this article. Despite individual, educational, linguistic, and immigration-related differences, these mothers shared a general cultural model that influenced their thinking in similar directions on broad issues such as individual autonomy versus family, productivity versus self-care, and so forth. Whereas significant differences might not be expected at this general level of cultural models, significant differences among participants would be expected at the level of specific cultural practices. That is, had this study investigated what these families actually do within their individual local ecological settings, considerable variance might be anticipated. Economic necessity or family circumstances such as death or divorce, for example, might lead to cultural practices that may appear to conflict with the underlying cultural models. We argue that inferences about cultural practices should not be made based solely on information about general cultural models. This is an important limitation in the present study that needs to be highlighted. Although we are confident that we were able to elicit key aspects of these mothers' cultural models, we did not investigate cultural practices. Thus, even though there was a great deal of consensus about features of the cultural models, because specific cultural practices were not investigated directly, there may be significant variance in individual practices in different social contexts. Future studies should focus on both aspects.


UNIVERSAL VERSUS CULTURALLY SPECIFIC PATTERNS
The question might be raised as to whether the themes identified in this study are unique to the Latina mothers who participated in the focus groups, or whether they express more universal issues. To some extent, it is indisputable that most parents, regardless of cultural background, and regardless of their children's abilities or disabilities, want their children to acquire basic self-care skills, develop social relations, and find productive (and even meaningful) work. Most parents value the family, but also allow a certain level of individualism and independence in family members. Likewise, most mothers feel that they have important knowledge about their own children, although they are usually willing to listen to the perspectives of others with special expertise, such as teachers, physicians, or pastors. Parents also regard information about how systems work, and options available to their children, as useful in planning their children's futures as well as in protecting their children's interests. Finally, there are probably few parents who do not appreciate that the world is a place of some danger, but nevertheless recognize that their children must somehow venture into it at some point. Therefore, we argue that differences are a matter of emphasis, rather than absolutes.
What was striking to us as researchers was the lack of a shared perspective between these mothers and the system designed to help them and their children. (It should be recalled that we did not attempt to assess the personal values and beliefs of system caseworkers, many of whom were Latinos themselves. We did form the impression that regardless of variability in personal beliefs, in their professional roles as caseworkers and teachers they tended to represent the assumptions and priorities of the system that employed them.) In every instance concerning the major themes we identified, the orientation of the mothers and of the service delivery system appeared to be at odds. Where the system stressed productivity, and put less attention on social development, to mothers productivity was a pleasant, but rather irrelevant afterthought; their real worries focused on the need to encourage socially appropriate interactions in their children. Where the system repeatedly tried to view the young adult child as an autonomous individual, mothers found this approach a disturbing violation of their view of the child as embedded in the family. Whereas to the system, privileging of professional expertise seems correct, mothers felt their personal knowledge of their children was devalued and ignored. The system tends to regard information as value-neutral, but to the mothers it was not simply a technical tool, but a protection and at times even a weapon that could be used to ward off those who did not appear to have the best interest of their child at heart. Although many recognize the sometimes considerable risks encountered in the larger society, most generally assume that all people must take their proper place in that society. The mothers of this study reacted quite negatively to this assumption, and challenged its relevance and veracity.
We believe that families coming out of the dominant cultural model that helped to shape the present service delivery system for persons with disabilities will be more likely to place emphasis on similar values. Although generalizing is always risky when speaking about particular cultural groups, we speculate that these families will tend to recognize, be comfortable, and agree with values of productivity, independence, expert knowledge, information as a tool, and assimilation into the larger society. Although we would expect significant variation in terms of how these particular themes of the dominant cultural model are translated into cultural practices for specific subgroups or specific families, we also suggest that participating in a shared model creates a greater sense of safety in families, therefore less alienation and less resistance. For the mothers in our study, the lack of a shared model appeared to lead to confusion, misunderstanding, and isolation.


CONCLUSION
Care should be exercised in generalizing these results to parents of young adults with disabilities in general or even to other Latina mothers. We cannot claim to have identified a representative sample of the population of Latino families who receive services. The sample was recruited from a community agency and was drawn from those who were known to the agency, willing to participate, and able to attend the sessions. Focus groups, by design, are not representative, nor should any attempt be made to generalize from them.
In addition, the perspective of service providers, fathers, and other family members are not represented here, and may provide different ways of understanding the issues discussed. A more systematic exploration of the dynamics of the transition planning process with both service providers and the entire family would be useful. However, taken together with earlier work with similar populations (Harry, 1992b; Kalyanpur & Harry, 1999; Zetlin, Padron, & Wilson, 1996), it is reasonable to hypothesize that problems continue to exist in Latina mothers' perceptions of, and satisfaction with, the service delivery system in special education in general and in terms of transition in particular. As other investigators have noted in a point of great relevance to the present study, "How one defines 'successful adulthood,' the end goal of transition planning, is determined by culture-specific values and expectations about many important issues, such as work, community integration, role expectations, and social functioning" (Geenen et al., 2001, p. 266). The issues of values, beliefs, and cultural models represented in the diverse clientele served by the special education system remain an important area of investigation as a means of assuring equal access and meaningful collaboration for all young adults and their families. Finally, there are currently no lifespan perspective studies that investigate these issues. The existing studies, taken as a group, present an interesting cross-sectional view, but it would be valuable to investigate the development and change over time in mother's beliefs, values, and perspectives as a result of ongoing contact with the service delivery system.

This has to be a Point of View (POV) paper. The general subject is related to educational psychology. Among these are the theory of Multiple Intelligences and its use, standards and accountability, the brain and learning, globalization and learning as well as others. This Point of View Paper should take a position on one of these issues and discuss your impressions about them. Why are they issues related to education? What, exactly, are the differing viewpoints? How do they relate to educational psychology? What are the implications in everyday classroom practice?

You may select any topical issue around which to write this position paper. (I will list some topics below to choose from) Make sure you connect this issue both to educational psychology as well as classroom practice.

Here are some issues that Education Week lists as Hot topcis particulary important in education today. You might find this usefull for the topic. Topics are:
A Nation at Risk Adequate Yearly Progress
Accountability After-School Programs
Achievement Gap Alternate Teacher Certification
Assessment Character education
charter schools choice
class size College Access
Comprehensive school reform Desegregation
distance learning dropouts
english-language learners high school reform
Home Schooling Leadership
Low-Performing schools No child left behind
Parent Involvement Prekindergarten
Private schooling privatization of public educat.
professional development reading
religion in school rural education
school construction school finance
school-to-work social promotion
special education standards
student health student mobility
teacher quality technology in education
Title I Tracking
Violence and Safety Vouchers
year-round schooling

Make sure that you connect the issue to some theory in educational psychology. Some suggestions might be:
- does constructivism work in today's classrooms? (Vygotsky, Piaget, Bruner)
- What is intelligence? (Gardner)
- Should schools continue to "track" students ability?(Gardner)
- Should schools adopt manadatory bullying policies?(Kohlberg)
- Do single sex classrooms work?(Erikson)
- Do school uniforms policies work? (Erikson)
- What is the impact of standardized testing on student growth and motivation?

For this paper take one current educational issue that you can connect to educational psychology and discuss its meaning, importance and implication for the field.

The Position Paper should be structured as follows:
- Present the issue under review. Give some background so the reader understands the scope of the issue. Tell why you think it's important and why the reader should care about it.
- Discuss its relevance to educational psychology, or what you determine this relevance to be. How and why do you think it relates to educational psychology? Why should a teacher care about this issue in the context of his/her classroom? Why should parents care? Why should pre-service teachers care?
- Present your opinions, feelings and response to the issue. What do you think about it? How would you handle its resolution(if it needs one)?

3-5 Sources are to be used. Journals and Periodicals can be used.

PLEASE DO NOT USE WIKEPIDIA - NOT ALLOWED TO BE USED

I want like to have T. Lavinder do this assignment.

at the bottom are 2 sample proposal

I need a grant proposal, (please be creative as possible) created and I would like to improve the learning environment by proposing the need for 5 computers in my classroom and supplement software called Middle School Content Library from Plato learning @ www.plato.com for helping struggling middle school readers. You may have to research the site to get more information. The cost is $595.00 per access and I would like access for five students which would be $2,975.00. I would need a 3 day training that cost $1,500 per day for a total of $4,500. There are 756 students in my school and I teach Title 1 reading in a low income school. I have 6 classes and each class has about 15 students, the students are low in vocabulary improvement, locating and recalling information, reading for meaning, and critical analysis, so I would like to have a mini classroom lab where we can supplement our curriculum with Middle School content Library from Plato learning. The students love working on the computers but we just dont have enough. Any time technology is involved in their learning process, they excel. We have one computer lab with 30 computers that the entire school has to share. I would like this proposal to simply show how a low income school can benefit from a class set of computers and a supplement software from Plato which is self-paced, engaging, and interactive which has helped hundreds of thousands of students achieve learning success)

Here the parts of the proposal I need:

1)Project Summary/Introduction

This will provide reviewers an overview of the proposal. It is your opportunity to prepare the reviewers for the details that follow.
Checklist for The Introduction:
___ 1. Clearly states who is applying for the funds
___ 2. Describes the applicant and the district
___ 3. Describes the purpose and goals of the program/project
___ 4. Describes the students/staff
___ 5. States what accomplishments in this area may have been accomplished

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2)Need Statement

The purpose of this section is to demonstrate the degree of need for the project. Your first sentence should briefly state the need. Then clearly and concisely describe the need, its causes, and long-term impact. In explaining these need characteristics, be as specific as possible and indicate the sources of your information. You may use personal experiences as a source of information, but this alone is not sufficient. Use data from a variety of sources, such as the following, to support your analysis of the need:

standardized achievement tests
knowledge or skill mastery tests
attitude, aptitude, and interest inventory surveys
questionnaires, opinion surveys, interviews, and focus groups
direct systematic observation of student behavior
demographic or socioeconomic surveys
school and agency statistics (e.g., drop-outs, suspensions, pregnancies, attendance, referrals, SDE Rankings)
state and local assessment studies by other agencies or organizations
(e.g., health studies, population studies, student follow-up assessments, Kids Count)

Checklist for The Needs Statement:
___ 1. Directly relates to the District's goals as well as the goals of the granting agency
___ 2. Is reasonable---doesn't try to solve all the world's problems in one step
___ 3. Is supported by evidence that it can work.
___ 4. Is stated in needs of the students/staff, not the person/team writing the application
___ 5. Doesn't make assumptions
___ 6. Is short and to the point, interesting and free of educational jargon
___ 7. Makes a compelling argument

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3)Goal and Objectives and Evaluation Measures

The goal broadly states the project's approach. Most projects have one goal.
Objectives specify what the students will be able to do as a result of the project. Most proposals include 3-5 objectives. The objectives must be observable and measurable.
(Use verbs such as construct, develop, analyze, compare, identify, explain, etc.).

Example:
Goal: The goal of Danger Along the Oregon Trail is to develop an innovative teaching strategy which will enhance the understanding of American pioneers and their struggles. This simulation of traveling the Oregon Trail will help students overcome deficiencies in science, math, English, and social studies.

Objective l: By May 2004, at least 85% of the students will increase by at least 50% their understanding of why American pioneers went West, what supplies they took, and how nature affected their lives.

Evaluation 1: Pre-tests will be administered September 2003, and post-tests will be administered in May 2004. Results will be compared.

Checklist for The Objectives:
___ 1. Describe the program in measurable terms
___ 2. Describe the students/staff that the program will benefit, and how this will happen
___ 3. Include timelines for obtaining the objectives

Evaluation Measures

Evaluation measures explain how will you know if the participants accomplished the objectives. How will the attainment of the objectives be determined and documented?
Each objective must be evaluated.

Checklist for The Evaluation:
___Presents the plan for measuring how the objectives are met
___Gives a timeline of measurement
___Indicates who will carry out the evaluation(s) and how/why they were chosen
___States the criteria for success
___Describes how the data will be collected
___Explains the tests & instruments chosen to be utilized
___Explains how the evaluation will be reported



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4)Project Strategies/Activities

Describe the strategies/activities you will develop and use to achieve the objectives. Descriptions should be specific enough to convince the reviewer that they will lead to success and improve teaching practices. List the individuals involved and describe their role in each activity. The activities should show how the grant resources (i.e., consultants, supplies, equipment, field trips) will be utilized.

Checklist for The Activities:
___ 1. Describes the activities that will be used to carry out each objective
___ 2. Relates back to each objective
___ 3. Describes the sequence of events
___ 4. Describes the staffing for the activity
___ 5. Describes the students/staff involved in the activity
___ 6. Is reasonable, and can be completed within the timelines given

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6)Timeline

Indicate the chronological order of the major activities or checkpoints that are critical to the successful completion of your project. Be as detailed as possible. Include both program and administrative activities such as:

___administering pre-tests
__arranging and/or conducting workshops, staff meetings, parent meetings
___scheduling field trips and student performances
___completing evaluation of project objectives and final report

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7)Dissemination of Information

Propose a specific method for disseminating knowledge and information obtained through participation in the project to an audience of teachers and/or other school/district personnel.

Provide a description of your dissemination device. It could be audio or videotapes, instructional materials, booklets, etc., which could be reproduced and shared with other teachers and administrators. Your dissemination device need not be in its final form at the end of the grant period.

Example:

Development of a teacher's ocean unit activity manual listing procedures for conducting the ocean unit, strengths and weaknesses of the program, student activity directions and forms, material lists, resource listings, and evaluation forms. This guide will be maintained on-site for future review.

Videotapes and photographs of classroom activities (the building of the whale, the field trips, the "TREASURE OF THE SEAS" scavenger hunt, and beach picnic) will document the progress of the project.

The project leader will conduct an in-service session at the beginning of the next school year to explain the project to teachers and personnel. The presentation will focus on the instructional techniques utilized in the project and the evaluation results.

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8)Budget

Itemize all expenses for the program, from staff salaries to postage. Specify what the grantmakers funds will be used for.
Make certain that figures are added correctly, that totals from page one of the application, the budget breakdown sheet, and the attached narrative budget agree.

Round all figures up to the nearest dollar. Do not use cents. Use the following categories for your budget.

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SAMPLE PROPOSALS 1

SECTION I Project Summary
This project is designed to introduce the scientific process to very young children in a manner in which they can understand, to encourage their use of emergent math and writing skills to track the progress of their project, and to post their project in a graphic mode on the Internet. It is designed to encourage an appreciation of science as a subject and a career and to encourage use of the Internet by kindergarten students. Rose Raiders & Rooters is a term used to indicate people who find antique & miniature roses which are not under the protection of patent and then attempt to propagate the old roses. Our students will plant the bushes, make cuttings of new growth, and attempt to root the cuttings. They will use plants such as "Champneys Pink Cluster" which was originally developed in the early 1800s in South Carolina. Students will plant non-patented antique rose bushes patented miniature roses (permission to propagate has been obtained from the hybridizer Dennis Bridges of Bridges Roses), make cuttings of new growth, and attempt to root the cuttings, with progress, photographs, and information about the project posted on the Internet on the schools web site. Visits from botanists will show children how science can be a career as well as a subject in school.

SECTION II Need Statement (15 points)

Our kindergarten students have the highest percentage of developmental delays in our district.

We want to strive to develop a strong science education program, aimed at building critical thinking and problem solving skills in a cooperative learning atmosphere. Our school is a rural school and the students are for the most part disadvantaged. School records show that the majority of the students qualify for free or reduced lunch program. According to our most recent statistics, our school draws from the lowest median family income in the county. Our current unemployment rate has risen dramatically, with several major employers closing down in the last few years. With recent industry closings in our county, these figures will only get worse. The latest data available on the educational background of the areas adult population reveals that 40% of adults over 18 have less than a high school education. Thus many of our parents and extended family members are not able to provide the extra educational support their children need.

Because of the low economic status of our student population, opportunities to participate in hands-on science and technology experiences to heighten, reinforce, and complement their studies do not abound.

Target 2000 emphasizes the need for scientific literacy. The BSAP objectives and Science Frameworks all provide a direction for meeting that goal. An old Chinese proverb states "I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand." We believe that by giving our children a chance to conduct a rooting experience with plants which will continue to grow over the course of their school career, we will enhance their chances for appreciating science and viewing it as a desirable subject area.



SECTION III Goal, Objectives, and Evaluation Measures (15 points)

Goal: to significantly increase the number of kindergarten children who indicate an appreciation and enjoyment of science activities and to encourage them to view science activities as a positive subject matter. Essentially, we want the children to learn that science is an ongoing process, an enjoyable subject, and a viable career option for their future.

Objective 1: Students will create a school garden based upon antique & miniature roses, including roses developed in South Carolina in the early 1800s.

Evaluation method for objective 1: A yes/no checklist will be utilized to determine achievement of this objective. Achievement will be obtained if the garden is: 1) actually created on school grounds; 2) created through the use of antique roses; and 3) includes roses such as Champneys Pink China (a rose developed in the early 1800s at the Champney plantation in Charleston). A Consulting Rosarian from the American Rose Society will conduct this evaluation.

Objective 2: Students will indicate an increase in positive attitude toward science.

Evaluation of Objective 2: Students will be surveyed regarding attitudes toward science. The survey, to be administered in August and in April, will use a Likert-scale. 90% of children reporting an increase in positive attitude toward science at the end of the year will be considered achievement of this objective.

Objective 3: Students will be able to conduct propagation through a hands-on rooting project involving antique & miniature roses.

Evaluation of Objective 3: 80% of students who are able to root a rose cutting successfully will be considered achievement of this objective. The rooted cutting may be kept at either school or at home, if the parents would like to participate.

Objective 4: Students will use a special web site for highlighting progress of their project.

Evaluation of Objective 4: Achievement of this objective will be attained if the web page (including photos of the children and their projects) is created, placed on the school web page, and updated at least monthly during the year. The building principal will verify achievement of this web page.

Objective 5: Students will increase understanding about the relationship between careers and future employment, which will be enhanced through visits from local botanists, Agricultural Extension agents, rose growers, and others that work with plants or weather.

Evaluation of Objective 5: A teacher-made checklist will be created to determine the number of students who wish to enter science as a career. An increase in the number of children indicating interest in science careers between August and April will be considered achievement of this objective



SECTION IV Relationship of Objectives to Curriculum Frameworks or School/District Renewal Plan (10 points)
Science frameworks call for students to use the process skills to observe, classify, measure, infer, predict, and be able to communicate science principles and to design, conduct, and evaluate a scientific investigation. (Objectives 1, 3, 4, 5)
Knowledge of science standards for Area II Earth systems includes properties of earth materials, interactions of the earth, and changes on earth. Activities include daily observation and recording of weather data, growth, and changes of mother pants, growth and changes of cuttings. (Objectives 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Science frameworks professional development standards include trying new strategies in the classroom and involving students as active participants. All objectives in the project relate to this standard. (Obj. 1-5)
SECTION V Project Strategy/Activities (20 points)
Explanation of program:

Meetings will be held to assure complete understanding between principal, media specialist, teachers, and volunteers.
A newsletter will be sent home to parents explaining the project.
In class, the project will be exlained to the children.
At Open House, the program will be presented to parents.
Program Implementation/Measurement of Progress:
Students will use the scientific method as a guide for their activities.
A minimum of 20 varieties of antique and miniature roses will be purchased for the school garden to be used as "mother plants" for cuttings. These will be posted on the Rose Rooters web page. (relates to objective 1)
Students will "adopt" a rose to observe all year (seasonal changes, flowers, seeds, leaves, etc). Plant observations will be recorded and posted on the Rose Rooters web page. (relates to objective 3 & 4)
Plant studies will be ongoing in the classroom (observe process or rooting cuttings, shared responsibility of baby plants, growth of plants in garden). Charts in classrooms will measure the progress. (objective 2, 3, 4)
Reading, math, and writing lessons will utilize concepts being taught. (objective 2, 3, 4)
Activities integrating the teaching of science, reading, math and writing will include thematic units.(objectives 2, 3, 4, 5)
Students will be designated as monthly photographers to take pictures with digital camera, so that progress of rooting experience can be placed on class web page.
Monthly centers will be themed around roses.
Journal writing experiences will highlight students progress in growing the plants.
Measurement activities will be used throughout (how much potting soil, how high the plants grow each month, etc.)
Students will hold a "Stinger Rose Show" in the school library. Ribbons and awards will be given to each participant. (Stinger is school mascot.)
Pictionary units will be changed every two weeks, utilizing terms from rose culture (example: bud, root, leaf, flower, etc.).
Community support is evidenced though plans for a rose garden planting on the town square, to be attended by the Mayor and members of town and county council, as well as visits from the Honea Path Senior Citizens.
School support is evidenced through the use of the school web page for the childrens project. Also, use of school equipment such as printers, browser software, and access to the school web page are indicators of school support.
The school media specialist has agreed to create the web page for the Rose Raiders and Rooters project, and to teach the kindergarten teacher and children to maintain it for the kindergarten class. (objective 4)
Outside Resources/Volunteers (relates to objective 5)
A weatherman from the local TV station will visit the school to talk to students.
Seth Benson, consulting rosarian & high school technology specialist from Augusta (GA) Rose Society and Jenkins County (GA) High School, will speak to the children and assist in their introduction to rose care.
A local consulting Rosarian will assist guiding the students in the process.
A local rosarian has offered to make her garden available for field trips and to assist as needed.
A specialist from the states AOP Science Hub will visit the classes each season.
A specialist from the Weather Station at the Anderson Airport will speak to the class.
A botanist from Bridges Roses (Shelby, NC), Wayside Gardens (Hodges, SC), Roses Unlimited (Laurens, SC), The Mini-Rose Garden (Cross Hill, SC), or Park Seed Co. (Greenwood, SC) will visit the classes.
Students may take rose cuttings home to root in a home window, encouraging parent involvement in the project.
SECTION VI Timeline (5 points)
August, 1998

Order materials for grant program
Prepare materials to send home with children explaining program.
Rose hybridizer Jeff Bridges will visit the school and give a demonstration on roses to the children.
Field trip to the garden of a local rosarian to observe various types of roses (hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, old garden/antique roses, shrub/species roses, miniature roses) in a garden setting. Demonstration of pruning and of taking cuttings for rooting will be given.
September
Purchase supplies for plants.
Pick up roses at sources.
Prepare soil and make garden bed for the "mother site."
Plant roses for "mother site."
Water roses and mulch.
October
Take cuttings of rose bushes for rooting.
Establish identification system for plants and children.
Students develop "baggie" greenhouses.
Students plant cuttings in baggies.
Students care for cuttings and note progress.
Develop web page for class.
November
Photograph cuttings and note progress in rooting.
Botanist will visit class to explain how roots help the plant grow.
Students explain what they have done thus far and post on web page.
Consulting Rosarian from American Rose Society will visit class to help students.
December
Visit from AOP Hub Science specialist to explain the growth process of plants during winter.
Students continue to care for their rootings and post progress.
January 1999
Visit from meteorologist to explain weather and its impact on agriculture.
Student roses should have developed strong roots by this point, and will need ongoing fertilization and care.
February
Visit from consulting rosarian to demonstrate pruning techniques on "mother" plants.
Plant some of the rooted plants outdoors.
Students will water and care for newly planted roses.
March
Visit from botanist to explain how growth occurs in springtime.
Plant some of the rooted plants outdoors.
Students will invite Honea Path Senior Citizens to visit the garden and demonstrate how they raised their plants.
April
Students continue to care for outdoor garden and monitor progress.
Plant remaining rooted plants outdoors.
Students will plant some rooted roses in the Honea Path Community Garden, with Mayor and Town Council present.
Compare progress of plants which were planted outdoors in Feb., March, and April.
Evaluate progress and final results.
Consulting Rosarian from American Rose Society will visit and evaluate.
Exportable product will be developed and submitted to district.
Final report will be sent to State Dept. of Education.



SECTION VII Dissemination of Information and Exportable Product (10 points)

A pictorial record (videos, still photographs) of the activities and projects will be kept through the year. Students will have a responsibility to contribute throughout the year to this record. The progress of the program and its final evaluation will be distributed internationally through the school web site.

The project will be described in a brochure made available to state teachers, and placed at the school district office. The project will additionally be submitted as a proposal for presentation at the SCAEYC conference. An article about the program will be submitted to the American Rose Society magazine. Additionally, television and newspaper coverage will be requested.





SECTION VIII Budget Form and Narrative (10 points)

Expenditures are grouped by object numbers, which are explained in the instructions on pages 14-15. Seek assistance from your district finance office to ensure that expenses are identified and entered correctly. Round numbers to whole dollars.
Functions
Major Heading Series
Salaries
100
Employment Benefits
200
Purchased
Services

300
Supplies &
Materials

400
Capital
Outlay

500
Total
Instructional Series 100 1606 2394


Budget Narrative:

Source for non-plant supplies: Lowes of Anderson, SC

Pruners (4 @ 30.00) $120.00 Potting soil $135.00

ZipLoc Bags $50.00 Fungicide $40.00

Gloves $150.00 Plastic pots $150.00

Sprayers $50.00 Shovels $90.00

Garden hoses 30.00 Soaker hoses 55.00

Fertilizer 37.00 Pinebark mulch 200.00

Tumbling composter-130.00

Plant material: Rose bushes 300.00

Miniature roses (source: Bridges Roses, Shelby, NC) Varieties to be selected as available
Antique roses (source: Roses Unlimited, Laurens, SC) (Examples of varieties to be selected upon availability from list as follows:) Bourbon: Mme. Isaac Pereire (dp) 1881; Zephirine Drouhin (mp) 1868; Hybrid Musk: Ballerina (mp) 1937; Cina: Green Rose 1855; Old Blush (pb) 1793; Noisette: Champneys Pink (lp) 1811
Equipment: (Source: Vendor with best price in Fall, 1998)
Computer with network card 1995.00
Digital camera (D-220L) 399.95
Supplies (paper for newsletters, envelopes, etc.) 70.00
Total: 4,001.95
Total requested: 4,000

Project Name: Rose Raiders and Rooters School: Honea Path Elementary School

Signature: Signature

District Finance Officer District Grants Contact

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SAMPLE PROPOSAL 2

Project Summary -- Stinger Lab: Science Lab Experience for the Very Young Child
The purpose of this project is to increase science understanding among the students of Honea Path Elementary School (school mascot: Stinger) and to ensure students' future interests and success in science. There is a low percentage of students in the school district selecting the sciences for careers, especially among females and minorities (as reported by curriculum supervisor for District 2). The negative perception of science as either "boring" or "hard" begins at an early age. The Stinger Lab project is designed to hook children into enjoying science at a very early age, and to encourage this positive attitude in older years. The goal is to improve students' attitudes toward the study of science, and to increase students' level of knowledge and skill acquisition in science.. The exportable product for this program will be a brochure which can be used by other teachers in South Carolina who may wish to duplicate the program.

Problem Area

Honea Path Elementary School is a school which serves the children of a small community. The school is located in a working-class area, and there is very low parental involvement with school activities. This is due primarily to the fact that both parents work outside the home in 86% of the families of students in the school (based upon information from school records). According to census records and home surveys, 54.7% of parents have no education past the high school diploma; 23.0% have less that a high school education (Southern Assn. Report, 1994). The parents appear to have neither the time nor the educational background to support their children in appreciation of the sciences. The school faculty believes that an intervention is necessary to increase student achievement in science. Teachers established a rudimentary lab using an unused classroom, but little equipment and reference material is available in the lab. Data regarding the problem is as follows:

1. Honea Path Elementary has the highest percentage of students with developmental delays in the district, which places these students at risk for future school failure. South Carolina's average first grade retention rate is 12.4%; Anderson County's average is 10.0%; Honea Path Elementary's retention rate is 19.7% (SC Dept. of Education Data).
2. State average of readiness for first grade details that 25.6% of SC children are not ready for first grade, whereas Anderson County's level of not meeting standards for readiness is 24.9%. Honea Path Elementary's level of students not meeting standard is 27.9%. (SC Dept. of Education Data)

3. Twenty percent (20%) of the student population has been retained at least once during the Pre-K through Grade 4 time period, many having been retained more than once (School records, 1993-1994).

4. Forty percent (40%) of the children scored below the national standard in Science (grades 1-4).

5. According to an evaluation by teachers in March, 1994, all fourth grade teachers reported that the girls in their classrooms were already exhibiting negative attitudes toward science, and three of five reported negative attitudes toward science among minority race children. This indicates that the negative attitude toward science is emerging at a young age among the students at Honea Path Elementary School.
6. According to the 1994 Ten-Year Self-Study for the Southern Association of Colleges & Schools, the #1 need listed for the school's short-range plans was for an inservice education program for teachers in science.

The above data supports the need of Honea Path Elementary School to institute a program of hands-on science in the primary grades.



Goals & Objectives

The goal of the Stinger Lab program at Honea Path Elementary will be to significantly increase the number of children who indicate an appreciation and enjoyment of science activities, and to encourage them to view science activities as a positive subject matter. By the end of the project year, the grantee will develop, incorporate, and evaluate the use of a hands-on and laboratory science program to improve the levels of awareness and appreciation of science among the schools primary & elementary population. The grantee with organize for use by other primary/elementary teachers a brochure on developing the program which can be used as an exportable product by other teachers throughout the state.

Objective 1: The teachers in the primary & elementary program will significantly increase their skills in science instruction of very young children.

Objective 2: The students in the primary and elementary classes will exhibit a positive attitude toward science.

Objective 3: The students will increase understanding about the relationship between careers and future employment, which will be enhanced through visits from local veterinarians and others who work with animals.

Objective 4: Females and minorities will indicate an increased positive attitude toward science as a future career.

Objective 5: Parents will report an increase in awareness of the need for science appreciation.







Evaluation Plan

The principal and lead science teacher will conduct formative and summative evaluations of the progress of the program during the school year, at regularly scheduled intervals. Any modifications needed to improve the program will be implemented as required.

Objective 1: The teachers in the primary and elementary program will significantly increase their skills in science instruction of very young children as measured by 100% participation in an inservice training program by primary science specialists designed to improve and reinforce classroom science instruction ..

Objective 2: The students will exhibit a positive attitude toward science, as measured by a survey administered in March of 1995. 95% of children who report a positive attitude toward science, using a Likert-scale evaluation, will be considered achievement of this objective..

Objective 3: The students will increase understanding about the relationship between careers and future employment, which will be enhanced through visits from local veterinarians and others who work with animals, as measured by a survey of student attitudes. 85% of children who express an interest in science as a career will be considered achievement of this objective..

Objective 4: Females and minorities will indicate an increased positive attitude toward science as a future career, as measured by an evaluation of teachers in March 1995. 100% of teachers who report that females and minorities have exhibited a positive attitude toward science will be considered achievement of this objective..

Objective 5: Parents will report an increase in awareness of the need for science appreciation, as measured by a survey to be administered by the PTO. 70% of parents reporting an increase in awareness of the need for appreciation of science will be considered achievement of this objective.



Description of Activities

The proposed program goals encompass a wide range of curricular areas. The program encompasses the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor domains of learning. The Stinger Lab program will utilize a multi-media approach which encourages young children to explore the world using all of their senses. It combines classroom teaching with laboratory activities and experiences, so that the lab visits will become a powerful stimulus to science learning in the early grdes.

During the 1993-94 school year, teachers developed a rudimentary lab using an unused classroom. There is only a minimum amount of equipment and reference material available. In order to create more interest and individual active participation in the subject area of science, hands-on laboratory experiences will be developed to correlate with topic areas studied during the school year. This program will greatly supplement laboratory materials and reference materials in the school's media center.

This program includes a teacher training component. Before the teachers introduce the program in their classroom, they will receive workshop training from science specialists and educators. Training will be conducted both at the local school and at science centers such as Roper Mountain Science center and Clemson University planetarium. Teachers will be introduced to materials and offered specific ideas and lesson plan suggestions for implementing the program in the classroom and in the lab. Teachers will be exposed not only to the science content that the children with learn, but to additional information that will enrich their understanding and performance as teachers. From a trained science specialist, they will learn how to use specific types of lab exhibits to reinforce classroom science instruction. For continuing support, the teacher is provided with instructions that include a mastery list of concept for the primary and elementary program. There are also scope and sequence charts keyed to each book.

Children learn that science is an experience to be shared. Their understanding and excitement may take them beyond their regular reading levels. Books are provided for the appropriate reading level which can be ready by parents or teachers to the students. Books will be available in both the science lab and in the school library.

The program presumes that science is as basic to education as reading and mathematics and should be presented to children at the same time. It has been designed to educate young children in the fundamental skill of science--observation. Numerous games and physical activities will be included in the program. The lab visit will be the earliest laboratory experience for young children.

The program will be modular and flexible. It will be used as a supplement to the school science curriculum. The program will also enhance other areas such as understanding and expressing spoken language and developing reading and writing skills. The program consists of books and science kits, each devoted to a different science topic. Lab lessons will be planned for each class. These thematic lab trips relate closely to the content of the program materials and serve as the earliest and most enjoyable laboratory experiences for this age group.







Time line

August 1994

Director of Roper Mountain Science Center will be contacted to establish a date for inservice activities for teachers. Materials for the teachers will be ordered..
September
Lab educational specialists from science centers will provide training program for all teachers involved in the program.
October 1994-April, 1995
Teachers will begin teaching the students in the primary & elementary program about the sciences using materials and using strategies learned in seminar by lab representative.
Students in the primary & elementary grades will visit the Honea Path Elementary School Stinger Science Lab for continuing laboratory experiences.

November-May, 1995
Teachers will increase in-depth instruction, teaching the students in the primary & elementary program about science topics (such as air, water, force, mechanical energy, heat, sound, light, magnetism, earth & space, animals) using materials and using strategies learned in seminar by science specialist.
Formative evaluations will be conducted each nine weeks by the principal and science specialist to determine the effectiveness of the program and to allow for modifications which might improve the service.
May, 1995

A summative evaluation of the project will be conducted and report submitted to the State Department of Education.











Exportable Product Description

A brochure will be made detailing the program and explaining how it could be used by other schools. The brochure will be printed on a laser printer in camera-ready format which can be duplicated with minimal cost for other schools who request the information. The brochure will be provided to the State Department of Education without copyright protection to allow for duplication for other schools.



Section X--Budget

Salaries

Eight substitute days, to release teachers for inservice training 400.00

Employee benefits

Purchased services

Supplies & Materials



400 Supplies and Materials

Kits for Laboratory Experiences:

Primary Sci-Quest Kit for grades K-4 193.00

Teacher guidebook for Primary kit 20.00

SciQuest Weather Kit 109.00

Air MiniKit 39.70

Force, Mechanical Energy & Work mini kit 25.80

Water Mini kit 31.80

Heat MiniKit 34.95

Sound 23.80

Light 29.29

Magnetism 27.30

Earth & Space 11.60

Subtotal: 518.94

AudioVisuals

Science Videos (National Geographic, SVE, etc.) 438.00

Subtotal: 438.00

Books for Science Lab

2000 Gooey, Slippery, Slimy, Weird & Fun Experiments 12.95

Animals 9.95

Astronomy for Every Kid 10.95

Biology for Every Kid 10.95

Chemistry for Every Kid 10.95

Earthquakes 9.95

Earth Science for Every Kid 10.95

Gravity 9.95

Machines 9.95

Magnets 9.95

Microscopes and Magnifying Lenses 9.95

Molecules 9.95

Physics for Every Kid 9.95

Everyday Science Sourcebook 21.00

Subtotal for Science Lab Books $157.35

Other science books to be ordered by media specialist library $485.00

Write an essay that includes the following:
Part I: a discussion of the value, characteristics, and purpose of an RTI program to a professional educational environment.
Part II: selection of an educational environment to modify including a plan of action to accommodate a response to intervention.

Background for part 2 the environment is an inner city school in Trenton New Jersey with a high population of Hispanic and African American students with common challenges a tough inner city school faces. Many of challenges for Hispanics are language issues and low parent involvement. Many African American students are involved in gangs with also little parent involvement. There are little or no programs that grab the attention of our at risk students. We need to incorporate afterschool programs incorporated with some type intermural system (sports) to attract these students.

Just giving you a little background. You may choose any idea you would like.


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Ascher, Haury, Milbourne, Davenport (see Unit #7 Lectures)and Ryan point to tracking students (e.g. advanced or regular classes)as a barrier to a quality education for all. What is the pedagogic evidence? Write a 500-word essay on the aforementioned question.

Lecture material:

ERIC Identifier: ED351426
Publication Date: 1992-10-00
Author: Ascher, Carol
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education New York NY.

Successful Detracking in Middle and Senior High Schools. ERIC/CUE Digest, Number 82.

THIS DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER. FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT ERIC, CONTACT ACCESS ERIC 1-800-LET-ERIC
In tracked schools, students are categorized according to measures of intelligence, achievement, or aptitude, and are then assigned to hierarchical ability- or interest-grouped classes. Although most elementary schools have within-class ability grouping, tracking is most common at the middle and high school levels.

Recently, a wide range of national educational and child advocacy organizations have recommended the abolition of tracking. Their reason is that too often tracking creates class and race-linked differences in access to learning. In fact, because of the inequities in opportunity it creates, tracking is a major contributor to the continuing gaps in achievement between disadvantaged and affluent students and between minorities and whites (Oakes, 1992; 1985).

Although tracking has declined nationwide in recent years, it remains widespread. For example, in grade seven about two-thirds of all schools have ability grouping in some or all subjects, and about a fifth group homogeneously in every subject. Moreover, the prevalence of ability grouping increases when there are sizable enrollments of black and Hispanic students (Braddock, 1990).

Not surprisingly, the changeover to heterogeneous groupings--generally called either detracking or untracking--remains controversial. The greatest concern among both parents and educators is that heterogeneous grouping may slow down the learning of high-achieving students, for there is evidence that high achievers do better in accelerated classes for the gifted and talented (Kulick, 1991). Oakes (1992), however, has pointed out that the benefits these students experience are not from the homogeneity of the group, but from their enriched curriculum--which lower track students would also thrive on, given sufficient support.

It is also clear that tracking can work against high achievers, particularly where a large number of the students are above average. Districts vary enormously in their cut-offs for slow and gifted learners. In fact, suburban, middle-class districts, where students perform above the national average, generally have high cut-offs for their gifted and talented programs, and are therefore most likely to send many capable students to regular or unaccelerated classes (Useem, 1990).

CURRENT DETRACKING EFFORTS
There is still much to understand about the ramifications of both tracking and heterogeneous groupings. Yet because the country is quickly shifting toward a belief in heterogeneous groupings, and many schools have already begun detracking some or all academic subjects, it is useful to summarize those changes necessary for detracking to succeed.
Based on the ethnographic study of schools around the country, Wheelock (1992) outlines six factors which exist in schools that are successfully detracking.

1. A Culture of Detracking. Creating a new culture of detracking is probably more important than any specific strategy. Perhaps the key to a detracked culture is the commitment to be inclusive. Teachers, parents, and students alike believe in the right and ability of students from every background to learn from the best kind of curriculum. They are also convinced that all students can gain academically and socially from learning together and from each other.

2. Parent Involvement. Since middle-class parents of gifted students can be detracking''s most powerful opponents, they must be assured that their children will not be subjected to a watered-down curriculum, but that all students will be offered "gifted" material. They must also be helped to rethink the competitive, individualistic way in which they have come to view schooling, and to see how learning improves when students listen to others from different backgrounds, share knowledge, and teach their peers.

3. Professional Development and Support. Because the core of any detracking reform centers on how teaching will occur in the classroom, it is critical that teachers be actively involved in the change. This means not only that discussions about when, where, and how to detrack must include teachers, but that teachers must receive professional development prior to, during, and after the detracking process. Wheelock suggests that teachers must receive three major areas of training for detracking:

the risk-taking, communication, and planning skills to work for whole-school change;

strategies for working effectively with diverse students in a single classroom; and

specific curricula they may not have used or watched others use.

4. Phase-In Change Process. Detracking involves large changes at many levels. Even once the commitment to detracking has been made, most schools proceed slowly to allow teachers, students, and parents to adjust. Often detracking begins with a single grade level, student cluster, or subject--say, science, social studies, or language arts. Mathematics, with its aura of appropriateness for only the best and the brightest, often remains the last to be breached by detracking plans. The point is not that there is a certain way to proceed with detracking, or even a definite time schedule. Rather, plans must be flexible enough to respond to hesitations and concrete problems as well as unanticipated openings.

5. Rethinking All Routines. Ultimately, detracking should be reflected in all areas of school life. Thus, school routines that separate students from each other, that exclude some students from the opportunity to learn, that communicate reduced expectations for some, or that undermine a sense of belonging must all be rethought. Instead of pull-out approaches, every attempt should be made to keep all students within the regular classrooms, providing the fast learners with needed stimulation and the slow ones with the necessary support.

6. District and State Support. Although detracking takes place at the school level, a supportive policy coupled with technical assistance at the district and state levels can nurture administrators and teachers, enabling more than the most adventurous schools to proceed.

INSTRUCTION FOR HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES
In a fully detracked school, most instruction is provided in heterogeneous groups. Teachers no longer pace their instruction to the "average" student, but individualize learning through personalized assignments and learning centers. Rather than dominate the classroom, teachers act as directors of learning which takes place through such multiple routines as cooperative learning, complex instruction, and peer and cross-age tutoring.
Developed by Robert Slavin and his associates at Johns Hopkins University, cooperative learning has been heavily researched; it is the most common strategy used in detracked schools and exists in a number of models. In all, students work in heterogeneous groups and share responsibility for one another''s learning. While some models insert a competitive element, others stress the building of team scores by mutual cooperation (Slavin, 1990).

THE NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
Standardized testing has been the handmaiden of tracking, assuring teachers, students, and administrators alike that there is a rationale behind the hierarchical sorting of students. Although standardized tests will likely continue to be used for some purposes, they tend to work against a detracked culture. First, they see ability as static, not as dynamic, and they suggest what students already know, not where they need help. Second, they create an emphasis on teacher talk, seat work, and rote learning--all of which are antithetical to the interactive, problem-solving and egalitarian workings of a detracked school.
While a variety of performance-based tests are being developed, so far they are expensive, labor intensive, and imprecise (Maeroff, 1991). Thus their growth will be dependent on a commitment not only to new ways of teaching and a problem-solving curriculum, but to egalitarian school organizational structures.

ACCELERATED SCHOOLS
One school restructuring model that results in detracking is Accelerated Schools, developed by Henry Levin and his colleagues at Stanford. Briefly, in an accelerated school, all students receive the enriched curriculum and problem-solving techniques generally reserved for gifted and talented students. As in any successfully detracked school, an accelerated school curriculum is not only fast-paced and engaging, but it includes concepts, analyses, problem-solving and interesting applications. Dewey''s notion of "collaborative inquiry" both informs how learning occurs in accelerated schools, and guides the school governance process. Again, as with detracked schools that depend for their success on bringing parents, teachers, and students into the process, accelerated schools involve parents, teachers, and students in formulating both the goals and the interventions (Levin, 1987).
CONCLUSION
Although tracking remains controversial among both educators and parents, there has been a recent policy consensus that the negative effects of tracking on lower track students are so severe that schools should move towards detracking.
Successful detracking rests on an "inclusive" school culture. It also depends on a curriculum that is interactive and problem-solving, as well as on assessment processes that support such a curriculum. Schools embarked on detracking must draw in parents, students, and teachers, not only to ensure that these groups buy into the change, but to teach them new egalitarian ways of thinking, and to use them to help reconsider existing school routines.

ERIC Identifier: ED433217
Publication Date: 1999-05-00
Author: Haury, David L. - Milbourne, Linda A.
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science Mathematics and Environmental Education Columbus OH.

Should Students Be Tracked in Math or Science? ERIC Digest.

THIS DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER. FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT ERIC, CONTACT ACCESS ERIC 1-800-LET-ERIC
There seems no simple answer to this straightforward question; the answer depends on who you ask and what learning outcomes are considered most important. Studies focusing on student achievement seem to bear different results than studies focusing on equity issues, and in both cases there are questions about the educational significance of the findings. Though many researchers and educators consider the practice outdated, or even harmful to some students, many parents and teachers strongly endorse tracking. Here we will try to sort out the issues, and then suggest that the answer to whether children should be tracked in math or science is neither "yes" nor "no."

First, we differentiate tracking from ability grouping. Within a particular class, teachers often form reading groups or math groups on the basis of ability; this is an instructional management practice that enables teachers to more effectively attend to the individual needs of students. Students can move from group to group as they progress, and the whole class receives the same basic instruction. By tracking, we are referring to the practice of separating students into different courses or course sequences ("tracks") based on their level of achievement or proficiency as measured by some set of tests or course grades. This practice has been common in the United States throughout the 20th century, and even in schools where there is no formal system of tracking, the higher achieving, college-bound students take different classes-honors classes or Advanced Placement classes-than other students. By 8th grade, over two-thirds of U.S. students are grouped into differentiated math courses (Mullis, 1991).

Many educators began questioning the practice of tracking in the 1970s when studies began to show that minority and low-income students were over-represented in the lower tracks where they receive less challenging instruction from less qualified teachers (Oakes, 1990). On the basis of results from many separate studies, some have argued that students of all ability levels do no better in tracked classes than in classes of mixed ability (Slavin, 1990). These findings prompted many schools to abolish tracking.

More recent findings, however, have caused some educators to take a more cautionary approach. In one nationwide study it was found that scores for students formerly in the lower tracks did improve when the students were moved to mixed-ability groupings, but the scores of average and higher-achieving students decreased somewhat (Argys, Brewer, & Rees, 1996). The reverse effect had been documented earlier (Gamoran, 1987); tracking boosted achievement among students in the academic track, but the gains were offset by the losses experienced by students placed in the lower track. Gamoran also found that the difference in achievement between students in the upper and lower tracks was even greater than the difference between those who stayed in school and those who dropped out. One outcome of tracking, it seems, is a widening of the gap between high achievers and low achievers.

In attempting to account for the increased gap, Gamoran (1995) found that questioning patterns differ significantly in honors, regular, and remedial classes, indicating differences in the way students and teachers interact in those classrooms. Indeed, teachers in the academic tracks tend to place more emphasis on reasoning and inquiry skills than do teachers of classes in the other tracks. Students in the lower tracks also spend more time reading textbooks and completing worksheets while students in the upper tracks are more likely to participate in hands-on inquiry and write about their reasoning in solving mathematics problems. These differences in the learning environments of remedial, regular, and honors courses may account in part for the findings of Madigan (1997). In exploring patterns of science course taking, science proficiency levels, and demographic variables, he found that "the most consistent pattern seems to be that what science courses students take in high school is more related to increases in science proficiency level than the number of science courses" (p.12). Also, math and science courses with higher proportions of minority students are more often designated as "low-ability" courses than are courses with lower proportions of minority students (National Science Foundation, 1996). Among 10th graders in 1990, Black, Hispanic, and Native American students were less likely than other 10th graders to be in an academic track (Peng & Hill, 1995) where science and math are emphasized. When this placement pattern is compared to the expectations of 8th graders and the distribution of 8th graders in academic math courses, one has to wonder how early children are deciding whether they are capable of advanced studies and how much influence the practice of tracking, particularly in math, is having on the perceptions.

It is this apparent connection between demographic grouping (minorities, low-income students) and so-called ability grouping that is most troublesome. There have long been concerns about the underrepresentation of some minority groups in math and science, so are we exacerbating the problem by continuing an educational tradition that has, at best, a marginal benefit for a small group of students? Indeed, Oakes (1990) has said, "while not all students have the interests or aptitude to become scientists or mathematicians, the disparities for African-American and Hispanic minorities and the poor are so great that considerable science and mathematics talent is undoubtedly being lost from these groups" (p. 2). So, it seems the supposed "ability-grouping" tradition in math is, in effect, also a sorting process with unsettling social consequences.

In attempting to place these findings in a broader context, it is worth considering the general levels of proficiency in mathematics among high school seniors as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (Mullis, 1991). Though students in academic programs, with plans to attend college, performed significantly higher in mathematical achievement than students in general and vocational programs, their average was barely above the level required to successfully understand material introduced by the 7th grade. Likewise, results from the Third International Science and Mathematics Study (see online at http://nces.ed.gov/timss) showed U.S. 12th graders scoring below the international average, and among the lowest of the 21 participating nations. The mathematics assessment represented a seventh-grade level curriculum for most participating nations. So, even among the best students in higher-performing schools, relatively few seem prepared for advanced mathematics, and U.S. students in general do not perform at an advanced level compared to students of other nations. These results do not present a very strong case for continuing existing practices.

One of the problems in attempting to make a decisive stand on the issue of tracking is the array of conflicting results from individual studies; despite all the debate over the issue of tracking, there has been no rigorous, large-scale study to provide a definitive accounting of the costs and benefits of tracking. Until such a study is conducted, the best we can do is decide what outcomes are most important to us, and use the most relevant findings to make local decisions. Some say (Loveless, 1999) that "detracking" is counterproductive, that it will most hurt those it is intended to help. The gap between high and low achievers will indeed narrow under mixed-ability grouping, because the high- and average-track students will likely achieve less, but the lower track students will not likely achieve more. Also, parents of high-ability students will likely transfer them out of schools that abolish tracking, or they will find other means to nurture higher achievement. It also seems that tracking does not necessarily have the same effects in all math courses (Epstein & MacIver, 1992); while lower achieving students were found to benefit from mixed-ability grouping in some math survey courses, tracking seemed to benefit all students some tracked algebra classes.

So, here is our thinking. U.S. students in general do not leave our schools particularly well prepared in mathematics; the traditional practices that so many cherish do not seem to be serving us well. Given the evidence that any marginal benefits gained from tracking by higher- achieving students come at the cost of increased barriers to lower-achieving students, the continuation of tracking seems unwarranted. If you factor in the potential benefit of using Internet resources (see Q&A article) to help students manage some of their own learning, higher achieving students would likely be just as well served by having differentiated assignments within mixed-ability classes. So, should students be tracked in math and science? For most students, the answer is clearly no; for the others, tracking has a marginal effect, but there are alternative instructional strategies that may hold even more promise.

All this is my purposal paper that you guese wirting for me but I need it this time one source from the teen brith control paper.
I need:
1 source from my proposal paper
Briefly summarize
Evaluate its
Rhetorical stance
Evaluate usefulness to you
2 pages
Double space
12piont font

RESEARCH PROPOSAL TEEN BIRTH CONTROL

Topic Overview
Unwanted pregnancy among American teenagers is a significant societal problem. In addition to changing the lives of teenagers in profound ways that require making alternate plans and arrangements for their future, it contributes to the numbers of children born into bad parenting situations. It increases high school dropout rates and very often perpetuates poverty and lack of opportunity, especially for teenage girls.
Throughout the former presidential administration of George W. Bush, most of the available federal funds for combating teenage pregnancy emphasized the abstinence-only approach. Unfortunately, research into the subject has established that abstinence-only programs are completely ineffective over the long term. Politically conservative influences have strongly opposed any effort to provide birth control to teenagers, especially without their parents involvement. If the problem of teenage pregnancy is to be reduced effectively, a much more realistic approach is necessary. In that regard, one of the most crucial elements must be the acknowledgement that the majority of American teenagers do become sexually active before the age of adulthood.
Research Questions
1. Would providing birth control to teenagers reduce unwanted teenage pregnancy more effectively than abstinence-only approaches.
I. Would providing birth control and information about avoiding unwanted pregnancy to teenagers be more effective if it were done confidentially?
ii. Would providing information about avoiding sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) within a framework that acknowledged teenage sexual activity patterns be more effective than any previous approach based on abstinence-only approaches.
Hypotheses
1. Providing birth control to teenagers would be a much more effective method of reducing unwanted teenage pregnancy than any abstinence-only methods.
2. Providing birth control to teenagers confidentially would be much more effective at reducing unwanted teenage pregnancy than doing so while requiring parental consent or notification.
3. Both unwanted teenage pregnancy and STD transmission would be more effectively controlled by an approach that recognizes the reality that many teenagers will become sexually active before adulthood that by any program that seeks to reduce teenage sexual activity itself.
Discussion of the Conversation Surrounding the Topic
One of the most fundamental problems with any approach to controlling unwanted teenage pregnancy is that conservative influences on government policy have succeeded in promoting the concept of abstinence instead of responsible sexual behavior. Meanwhile, empirical research has established that abstinence-only programs work only in the very short term and that participants in groups such as Promise Keepers (etc.) exhibit the identical rates of premarital sexual conduct over the long term. Because abstinence-only attempts to reduce teenage pregnancy rely exclusively on discouraging sexual behavior, when participants revert to sexual activity, they are no better informed or educated about topics such as responsible birth control than they would have been without any sexual education at all.
Reflection on Specific Experiences of the Researcher
In my experience, teenagers do not generally wait until adulthood before beginning to experiment sexually. Also, in my experience, most teenagers are not willing to or able to discuss the topic of their own sexuality openly with their parents at the time that they begin to experiment sexually. Many teenage girls who would use birth control if it were available confidentially will not do so if it means their parents must be involved in or aware of it at all.
The vast majority of teenagers who pledge to wait until marriage to begin having sex in their early teenage years do not maintain that position by the time they enter their later teenage years. When teenagers begin experimenting sexually without the benefit of useful information, they tend to ignore safe-sex considerations, they fail to employ effective anti-pregnancy strategies, and they often engage in patterns of relationships that are emotionally unfulfilling or even destructive instead of healthy and positive.
Purpose of Research Project
The purpose of this research project is to identify and recommend a more effective approach to minimizing unwanted teenage pregnancy and STD transmission than those typically relied upon by government-funded programs.
Preliminary Perspective/Opinion of the Researcher
The preliminary perspective and opinion of the researcher is that all three hypotheses will be confirmed: providing birth control to teenagers will reduce unwanted teenage pregnancy more effectively than abstinence-only approaches; providing birth control and information about avoiding unwanted pregnancy to teenagers will be more effective when done confidentially; and providing information about avoiding STDs within a framework that acknowledged teenage sexual activity patterns will be more effective than any previous approach based on the abstinence-only concept.
Prospective Audience for Research Results
The intended audience for the research results includes educators responsible for advocating for effective ways to reduce unwanted teenage pregnancy as well as parents who do not yet appreciate the importance of accepting the reality of teenage sexual patterns and of respecting the privacy and autonomy of teenagers.
Research Plan
The research plan for this project will consist primarily of two main components:
1. A literature review of relevant sources of information on the relative effectiveness of various approaches to reducing unwanted teenage pregnancy and STD transmission.
2. A series of anonymous questionnaires/surveys distributed to high school students soliciting their beliefs, opinions, and personal experiences with sexuality and birth control issues and concerns.
Research Project Timeline
The anticipated timeline for this research project is that the initial literature review and the creation of the series of surveys will proceed simultaneously. The literature review will continue during the questionnaire/survey distribution, collection, and analysis phase. Finally, the project will present the results of the literature review and of the questionnaires/surveys in a comprehensive analysis designed to provide definitive answers to the primary research question and sub-questions.
Tentative List of References for Literature Review
"Comprehensive Sex Education is More Effective at Stopping the Spread of HIV

Infection." American Psychological Association. Retrieved October 21, 2009, from:

http://www.apa.org/releases/sexeducation.html.

Editors. "Sex and Pregnancy among Teens." The Guttmacher Institute. (2006). Retrieved

October 21, 2009, from:

http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_sexEd2006.html
Feldman, Noah. (2005). Divided by God: Americas Church State Problem and What

We Should Do About It. New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux.

Forrest, Simon. "Sex Education that Works." (2009). Retrieved October 21, 2009, from:

http://www.avert.org/sex-education.htm.

Gerrig, Richard, and Zimbardo, Philip. (2008). Psychology and Life. Princeton, NJ:

Pearson.

Guttmacher Institute. "Facts on Sex Education in the United States." Guttmacher

Institute. (Dec. 2006). Retrieved October 21, 2009, from:

http://www.guttmacher.org.

Mooney, Chris. (2005). The Republican War on Science. New York: Basic Books.

Rector, Robert E., Pardue, Melissa G., and Martin, Shannan. "What Do Parents Want

Taught in Sex Education Programs?" The Heritage Foundation. (2004). Retrieved

October 21, 2009, from:

http://www.hertage.org/research/abstinence/bg1722.cfm.

Sullivan, Amy. How To End the War Over Sex Time; Vol. 173, No. 12 (2009): 40-43.

Witmer, Denise. "Sex Education in Schools." Parenting Teens - Parents of Teenagers

Find Help Raising Teens. Retrieved October 21, 2009, from:

http://parentingteens.about.com/od/teensexuality/a/sex_education.htm.




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My self as a puertorican moved to US, as a Esol Guidance- Help the parents navigate to the computer, complete a freeand reduce lunch form, school choice program, Parent Involvement like parent university. Help as a bilingual parent, students and staff(connecting them) Serving Issues bring and involved imigrant parents living in other country.

Please used the article of Defining Multicultural Education from http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/initial.html, the article from Sonia M . Nieto- Profoundly Multicultural Questions, the Article Developmental stages-Milton J. Bennetts Model of Intercultural Sensivity.and Chapter 1 and 10 from the Book Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society.-Donna M Gollnick If you don't get access to the chapters don't worry. Chapters one is about foundations of multicultural education. and chapter 10 is about education that ia multicultural.
The assignment said. A personal reflection paper with two parts. Must include hightlights/key points of each of the assgned reading( Multicultural education, Bennet, Nieto, Learning styles followed by your own responses to How does my own background and professional training equip me to teach with a multicultural perspective? In addition to telling your story, your paper should indicate how the assigned readings might impact your teaching. Like I am said I am a ESOL guidance teacher with students from Mexico Haiti Vietman, India, Arabia, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Honduras, Colombia, Domican Republic, Like I said I'm only guidance the student and counseling, I work with the parents and the school staff.

In your school situation, identify how the 4 Circles model is reflected. Where should your school improve in each of these areas? How can the improvements be affected by changes in the curriculum and especially the incorporation of the components of high-level learning?

The 4 circles of model are what we want, what we believe, what we know, and what we do. I will be sending you you a resource for a little background. I have to tie the 4 circles model to my school: here is some of my school info: I work in an innercity school in Trenton New Jersey. We face similar issues that many inner-city schools face such as poverty, low parent involvement, gangs, high dropout rate,minimal resources etc
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Read a journal article related to an area of reading. Critique the article and discuss the implications for instruction. Your discussion should include a reflection which addresses the connections among student learning, teacher dispositions and/or parent involvement.

Journal to be used: Morrow, L., & Tracey, D. H. (1997). Strategies used for phonics instruction in early childhood classrooms. Reading Teacher, 50644-651.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) requires that educational programs and practices be based on scientifically based research. This federal policy impacts practicing educators in the areas of curriculum, instructional strategies, professional development, parent involvement, and all federally funded programs.

Why is it important for school leaders to examine and understand the evidence base and the theory behind educational practice?
What are some ways you can expedite the process of obtaining this information?