World Civilization I

What major changes in political structures, and social and economic life, occurred during each of the Sui dynasty
The Tang dynasty
The Song dynasty

Sources must be cited in APA format
Four double-spaced pages

India and China provide two fascinating country case studies for comparing political systems, political cultures, economic growth and the future of the world?s two largest populations. Write an 8-10 page research paper comparing the systems, process and policy of these two countries and hypothesizing the future of each political system.

Political System- to include the political environment, political structure and its functions.
Political Culture- to include system, process and policy levels to include how political socialization occurs in each country and what are the key agents for socialization in each.
Interest Articulation & Aggregation- describe how this occurs in each country.
Compare how public policy is crafted in these two countries
In conclusion, students will hypothesize the direction in which they believe each country will head in the future. Will these countries become more or less democratic? How will their political cultures change with increased economic prosperity? How might interest aggregation and public policy creation change in the future?
Restrict you sources to major newspapers, magazines, news outlets, and professional journals

Below is the request for the essay given from my Prof. :
(online World Geo class-Community College)

How does the caste system affect the political structure in India?
For this you need at least 3 citations of your sources other than the book!
(Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts by de Blij and Muller)

Thank you.

Ann

The role of the federal government in the lives of the American people changed dramatically from the time of the country?s founding to the present. Initially, the federal government maintained a limited presence in the daily lives of most people. Often, state and local governments were far more prominent and exercised greater autonomy then exercised today. As time progressed, the role and influence of the federal government became more prominent. Examples of expansion in federal authority are evident in events surrounding the Civil War, Reconstruction, the Progressive Era, the Great Depression, and the Civil Rights Era.

Identify and describe four (4) examples of U.S. federal government expansion of authority between the beginning of the U.S. Civil War and the end of the Civil Right Era.
These examples must be placed in the context of the importance of the following developments in the United States:
Political structures
Social structures
Economic structures

Format your response using APA document guidelines, to include a title page, abstract page, content, and reference page. Citations and references should use APA style standards.

Answer the following questions in paragraph form, allowing approx. one page per question and using the following source: "Comparative Poitics", An Intro to Seven Countries, Fourth Edition, Rolf Theen and Frank Wilson.

1. Analyze and evaluate Japanese political history from the Meiji Restoration to 1945.

2. Describe the position of the Emperor, the Diet and the Prime Minister in the current Japanese political structure.

3. Discuss the role of the individual in the Japanese political framework. What role do political parties play?

4. Analyze and evaluate the history and political culture of China.

5. Discuss how the current Chinese government operates.

6. List and discuss political participation in Nigerian politics.

7. Analyze and evaluate the current Nigerian political framework

Question:In an essay which includes an introduction and conclusion (the introduction describes the main idea of the essay and how the essay will develop the idea and the conclusion is a summary based on information in the essay and a capstone answer to the question posed), discuss what the "big picture" "habit of mind" is and then apply it to the material in chapter 24. The essay should review 3-5 of the most important changes that transformed Europe 1500-1800. Make certain to identify the change, giving a date, names, places, and recount the story of change. Then analyze the significance significance of the change and how it transformed Europe.


I have an example of a satisfactory essay for your consideration: During the sixteenth century, Europe endured a myriad of transformations that altered all facets of its established institutions. These changes were profound and morphed Europe into a formidable region of power and influence. Transformation began when the religious unity of Europe was shattered through religious dissent. The dissolution of religious unity began a series of reformations and rebellions that swept Europe in a tidal wave of change. Aside from religion, Europes political, scientific and economic institutions were also transformed in this pivotal era of alteration.

Religious transformation began with the dissent of a lone German monk known as Martin Luther. Luther had become dissatisfied with the churchs sale of indulgences, which were pardons that absolved an individuals sins. He thought the act of selling pardons only illustrated the pretentiousness, greed and corruption of the church. Therefore he denounced the church and in October 1517, following academic custom of the day, he offered to debate publicly with anyone who wished to dispute his views, and he denounced the sale of indulgences in a document called the Ninety-Five These. (Bentley 631). Luthers dissension spread through the region like wildfire and sparked major dispute. And in 1520 Luther was excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church. Luthers lone act of dissent paved the way for religious protest and during the 1530s dissidents known as Protestants-because of their protest against the established order-organized movements in France, England, the low countries, and even Italy and Spain. (632). Soon, the dissension escalated into the Protestant Reformation. Luthers rebellious views became quite popular and by the mid-sixteenth century about half the German population had adopted Lutheran Christianity. England also left the Roman Catholic Church and established Anglican as the new religion. A man named John Calvin also established a form of Lutheran Christianity known as Calvinism throughout the French- speaking region of Switzerland. In an effort to respond to the dissension, the Catholic Church began to undertake its own version of reformation. Their reformation began with the Council of Trent. The Council of Trent was an assembly of bishops, cardinals, and other high church officials who met intermittently between 1545 and 1563 to address matters of doctrine and reform. (634). The Council of Trent intended to establish strict moral policies that would be followed by church authorities. It also aimed to expand their dwindling numbers of worshippers. The religious unrest of Europe eventually escalated to conflict. Religious wars wracked France for thirty-six years (1562-1598), for example, and they also complicated relations between Protestant and Roman Catholic states. (635). Religious conflict also hit continental Europe when a conflict known as the Thirty Years War broke out. The conflict began when the Holy Roman emperor attempted to force his Bohemian subjects to return to the Roman Catholic church and the main battleground was the emperors territory in Germany. Other parties soon entered the fray, however, and by the time the war ended Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Bohemian, and Russian forces had taken part in the conflict. (636).

Though the Thirty Years War was a ravaging conflict for all of Europe it also had profound political implications. The beginning of imperial fragmentation began when Charles V inherited leadership over Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland, and parts of northern Italy. During his era of rule, Charles did not rule his principalities under one administrative infrastructure, instead he ruled over each of the regions with its own laws and customs. But because of the religious rebellions and other foreign challenges, Charles was not able to establish his empire as the primary power base in Europe. As a result, Charles gave up his holdings to a new era of monarchs. And during the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, rulers of these lands, known as the new monarchs, marshaled their resources, curbed the nobility, and built strong centralized regimes. (639). The new monarchs included King Henry VIII of England, Louis XI and Francis I of France, and Fernando and Isabel of Spain. The new monarchs began to establish their reign by developing new sources of income to supply their rule. The Spanish and French instituted sales taxes, and the English gained a hold over the church wealth. With their increasing wealth, the new monarchs began to enlarge their administrations and expand their militaries. The new monarchs also began to curb the power of the nobility so that they could have little opposition to their rule. Political evolvement continued during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as they sought to restore order after the Thirty Years War, European states developed along two lines. Rulers in England and the Netherlands shared authority with representative institutions and created constitutional states, whereas monarchs in France, Spain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia concentrated power in their own hands and created a form of state known as absolute monarchy. (641). Constitutional government in England began to take hold during the seventeenth century after the disposal of King Charles I. Charles had been beheaded by parliamentary forces who convicted him of tyranny, as Charles was in constant conflict with members of his own parliament and often acted without their approval. The issue began to come to a resolution in a bloodless exchange of power known as the Glorious Revolution, which had Mary and her Dutch husband William of Orange, assume the throne. The resulting arrangement provided that kings would rule in cooperation with parliament, thus guaranteeing that nobles, merchants, and other constituencies would enjoy representation in government affairs. (641). The Dutch also began their construction of a representative government. The creation of their government began in 1579 when a group of Dutch provinces formed an anti-Spanish alliance, and in 1581 they proclaimed themselves the independent United Provinces. (641). The provinces were guided by a representative government that handled local affairs. The Dutch and the English also allied with merchants who supplied the regions with income in exchange for policies that looked after the interests of the merchants. In contrast to the constitutional states was the emergence of absolute monarchies. The best example of an absolute monarchy was the rule of the French monarch, King Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King. Louis rule was possible through the supervision and control of the nobility. Louis had members of nobility set up residence at his palace in Versailles, where he could keep an eye on them. In effect, Louis provided the nobility with luxurious accommodations and endless entertainment in exchange for absolute rule. (644). Absolute monarchy also emerged in Russia, where it was instituted by Peter the Great. Peter used European influence to mold the Russian empire into a tightly centralized regime. This greatly increased the power and influence of Russia and Peters rule established the capital of St. Petersburg and created a bustling seaport. Another important factor in the political evolvement of the European territories was through the igning of the Peace of Westphalia. The treaty was implemented after the end of the Thirty Years War and it laid the foundations for a system of independent, competing states. Almost all the European states participated in drafting the Peace of Westphalia, and by the treatys terms they regarded each other as sovereign and equal. (646).

As the political structures of Europe evolved, so did the economic components. The economy evolved as population and urbanization increased, as a result of the Columbian exchange, which decreased mortality. This demographic spike amplified economic growth. And this economic growth coincided with the emergence of capitalism-an economic system in which private parties make their goods and services available on a free market and seek to take advantage of market conditions to profit from their activities. (649). Capitalism became more influential as entrepreneurs were aided with transportation and communication links and were therefore able to take advantage of market conditions. Capitalism also led to the spread of banking facilities throughout Europes major capitals. The banks served the same functions as those of today, they looked after monetary holdings, granted loans and provided current information on the market holdings. The rise of joint-stock companies also showcased the progression of Europes economic institutions. The joint-stock companies had a major influence on the economy as they began to partake in larger commercial ventures. In addition, they were the principal foundations of the global economy that emerged in early modern times, and they were the direct ancestors of contemporary multinational corporations. (651). Entrepreneurs also began to find new ways of manufacturing goods, and with the rising European population they had a major workforce to choose from. Often, entrepreneurs sought rural laborers who would create the goods and send them to the entrepreneur, who would then sell them on the market. This arrangement became known as the putting out system. The putting out system remained a prominent feature of European society until the rise of industrial factories in the nineteenth century. (652).

The transformation of Europe also began a series of renovations in its scientific and cultural infrastructures. The rise of logical reasoning began with the proof of Copernicans theory that the earth and the other planets revolved around the sun. This shattered the age-old notion of Ptolemys theory that the sun and other planets revolved around the earth in a static and unchanging universe. The proof of Copernicans theory led to a revitalized view of the heavens that motivated others to seek truth about the nature and reality of our world. Famous astronomers such as Johannes Kepler and Galileo used their telescopes to scan the heavens to gain new insights. Astronomy was not the only area struck by change, philosophy and science also received renewed interest. Isaac Newton used mathematical and scientific reasoning to come to many new conclusions about the natural order of our world. Newtons vision of the universe was so powerful and persuasive that its influence extended well beyond science. His work suggested that rational analysis of human behavior and institutions could lead to fresh insights about the human as well as the natural world. (658). This era of progressive thinking became known as the Enlightenment. This enlightened era of thought showcased the evolvement of the scientific and intellectual enterprises of Europe and established Europe as a hotbed of rational and progressive thought.

To conclude, Europes transformation was one of utmost importance to world history. Europe developed along a unique line of development as they progressed towards the evolvement of all their establishments. Their evolvement was due in part to their mariner missions, which established the first links with the rest of the global community and expanded their power and influence. It was also due in part to the great monarchs and rulers who aided in the transformation by restoring stability. The dissolution of religious unity also played a front role in the transformation, as rulers used it to expand their influence and build power bases. The religious conflicts also set the role for political change, which created strong centralized governments that led to more stabilized regions that were less prone to civil conflicts. This allowed the political establishments to evolve without much discord. In turn, economic growth also flourished as the Europeans established new market systems with their newfound travel and communication links. Stability also paved the way for more enlightened thought, as intellectuals began the pursuit of knowledge and rational thought. Overall, Europes alteration had great repercussions for humanity as its influence and power spread throughout the world and it established Europe as one of the worlds principal powers.

Hello,

Based on the questions mentioned below, I need a cross-cultural comparison of the four cultural models. They can be chosen from these: The Azande, The Aztecs, The Basseri, Haiti, The Hmong, The Ju/'hoansi, The Kaluli, The Kapauku, The Minangkabau.

Questions to be answered: What are the four traditional levels of socio-political structure found in cultures throughout the world? (Band, tribe chiefdom, state)
Discuss the characteristics of each of the four levels of organization.
Give detailed examples of each of the four cultures you have chosen and identify which of the four levels they best fit into.
What similarities or universal characteristics can you see in these cultures? What major differences are there?
Discuss some of distinctive features found in each.
Use detailed examples from or text, as well as the outside sources you find.

So, basically, I need a cultural-comparison of socio-political structure (band, tribe, chiefdom, and state) of these 4 cultures.

Thank you.

You are to write a 2-page paper. Read the article below and answer the questions. State the question first. Do Not Use Outside Sources!

Luhrmann 2001 identifies agency as "the volitional capacity of all persons: their ability to choose, to indeed, to act".

Questions:
1.In what ways might the agency of teacher or learner be expressed in an educational experience?
2.What contradictions might result?

Identity in Anthropology
Identity is a vexed topic in anthropology. Simply described a persons identity in his or her psychologically salient individuality the way he or she feels different from or similar to other people. But what that means to anthropologist has shifted over time. At one time anthropologist and perhaps all social scientists tended to think of identity as a clear and unambiguous assertion of self-hood, which directed behavior and motivated actions. Self, person, identity were more or less interchangeable. When Erik Homburger Erikson for many years the Central theorist of identity wrote about identity he described it as a kind of consolidation of self so that when someone a quiet her identity the way she interacted with the world her ability to trust, to work, and to play was recognized externally by others in a way that was consonant with her own internal understanding. For Erikson then, activity was something that had to be achieved and its achievement was a development milestone in the human life cycle. Eriksonian self stood facing the world as the private awareness of that person which when mutually recognize and consciously accepted, became her identity. Identity formation arises from selected repudiation and mutual a simulation of childhood identifications and their absorption into a fugue configurations, which, in turn, is dependent on the process by which a society often through sub-societys identifies the young individual, recognizing him as somebody who had to become the way he is and who, being the way he is, is taken for granted. By definition, identity was unitary and more or less coherent. In the closing decades of the 20th century that simplicity had been lost. There are at least three reasons for this: the postmodern turn in anthropology and elsewhere in the social sciences; the recent focus on power in agency; and the emergence of what is called identity politics. Each suggests a somewhat different perspective. Nonetheless one can save that identity is no longer conceived as a sincerely unitary no longer perceived as a match between inner experience and our acknowledgment and no longer understood as a development achievement. But before we discuss these changes some discussions of the terms is in order.
Definitions
At least for terms are inextricably intertwined in these discussions: identity, self, agency, and person. Were the intellectual world to be sensibly organized anthropologist would use these four words to refer to different concepts but that is not always the case. As a result the discussions can seem a little murky. It is helpful in this context to turn to discussions in the psychological literature that have been rated by anthropologist and to use them to clarify the central concepts. To begin with the self, more complicated psychoanalytic approaches to the south began to emerge with the psychoanalyst Heinz Kohuts work. In a famous article 1959 he pointed out the tools of psychoanalysis are introspection and empathy and he argued that psychological phenomenon like the self thus necessarily include introspection and empathy as the essential elements. The I-experience, as he called it, captures the way individual introspects and thus evidence for the self is fundamentally different from evidence for the observable body. Kohut went on to establish his own vocabulary about the I-experience, the most useful phrase probably being the self-object the other person that an individual may use to sue himself and restore inner harmony as a mother can reassure a child that an imagined dragon is not real. His most fundamental contribution however at least for the present purpose was to distinguish between the introspective nature of the self and the differently observable nature of the person. This is the distinction that the psychoanalyst Roy Schafer later develops as the distinction between the person as the agent who asked and the content of the ideas that they have about personhood the persons understanding of his or her I. He calls the self narratives but often refers to them as selves. Schafer also argues that from this perspective this is clearly more than oneself a position that some anthropologist and psychologist also now adopt Kondo 1990, Gergen 1991. There may be the self who is confident, assertive, and effective and the one who is weak, and bears, and we acted it is that second self which the analysand will present in the analytic hour. There is the self we become when speaking French, freer more sophisticated, we feel, then our English-speaking self. There is the work self, the play self, the parenting self, the self in different roles, and the self under different circumstances. Schafer 1992, quotes a male analysand speaking to his analysts: I told my friend that whenever I catch myself exaggerating, I bombard myself with reproaches that I never tell the truth about myself, so that I end up feeling rotten inside, even though I tell myself to cut it out, that there is more to me than that, that it is important to me to be true folk, I keep dumping on myself. There are, Schaefer suggests, eight selves of five types in that remark. The types are: actual self, ideal self, self as place, self as agent or subject, self as object. The selves are: analysand self, social self (talking to friend), bombarding self, derogated self, exaggerating self, conciliatory adviser self, advisory self and defended self with redeeming features. Schafer is perhaps been excessive it is his exceeding self but the point is powerful. To call all of what his analysand describes the product of a single self is to lose a good deal of hopeful detail. From this perspective , a self a more precisely, a self narrative or self representation is a cognitive schema, a bounded collection of conceptions and images that an individual uses to perceive, to categorize, and to experience his world: in short, to think with. Clearly people are motivated by more than one simple cognitive packet. There are Americans, professionals, parents, neighbors; they are shy in some settings, assertive in other settings, steeled and aggressive in some games, cautious and awkward in others. Some theorists conceptualize these packets in terms of roles. Mardi Horowitz et al 1996, more complexly, right of role relationships. We established they argue particular ways of relating to people they are driven by our concepts of who they are, who we are in relation to them, and how we are to act in that relationship. They see these role relationships as integrated in a sense of personal identity. Claude Steele 1988 provides evidence for that integration is an experiment in which women in Salt Lake City were called by a man posing as a pollster. While the call was ostensibly about conducting a future poll on womens issues some women were told that it was commonly known that they were uncooperative with the community projects. Some were told that it was commonly known that they were corporate. Some were told that they would were bad drivers . Two days later, a woman called them back and asked them to help with the community project. Salt Lake City is a heavily Mormon community with a strong ethics of community cooperation. Perhaps unsurprisingly those who were insulted as uncooperative work twice as likely to agree to help out as those who were praised as if to clear their good name to themselves. What was more remarkable, however, is that those who called bad drivers were also twice as helpful as those who had been praised. Steele went on to argue that people often respond to damage to ones self representation by affirming success and another. I hanging back wih embarrassment as a lousy athlete when friends at a beach party decide that we should all play volleyball, but I can make myself a better by reminding myself, when I dropped the ball, that I am competent in the classroom. Those of us will drop volleyballs can enhance our self-esteem by bringing a terrific homemade pie to the next seaside event. At the same time, the term self seems to imply something more than this tale of loosely integrated but shifting schemas suggest. Cultural psychologist Markus and Kitayama 1994 argued that the model which underlies virtually all current social science views itself as an entity that comprises a unique, bounded configuration of internal attributes e.g. preference, treats, abilities, motives, values, and rights; and behaves primarily as a consequence of those internal attributes. They going to argue that in the West, for the most part people assume that the major normative task of the self is to maintain its independence, and in other, particularly Asian, settings, but normative task becomes maintaining interdependence with others. This proposition has been the subject of active debate in anthropology. They use the concept of the self, then, to indicate not only schemas of the I but process a of acting in the world. The cognitive psychologist Ulric Neisser 1988 makes sense of this confusion in an article widely read by psychologically-minded anthropologists. He argues that there are five times of self-knowledge, five ways in which we have knowledge of our I. there is the ecological self, the I perceived with respect to physical environment; the interpersonal self, experience in emotional communication the way I behaved in a particular human interchange; the extended self, based on memory and anticipation, the I who has done certain things in the past and will likely engage in certain routines in the future; the private self, experience as the awareness that other people cannot see your thoughts, that in some ways only I can know me; I believe comprise my self: my roles (Professor, friend, dog owner), my features(I had a liver, a nose, and a mind), and my specific traits (I am tall, short, smart, stupid, brunette, and blond). It is important, Ulric argues to distinguish between kinds of self-knowledge, because otherwise the self is full of appearing contradictions. It is physical yet mental, public yet private, directly perceived yet incorrectly imagined, universal yet cultural-specific. Although there is nothing with which we are more familiar we are often enjoined to know ourselves better than we do. She resolves the contradiction, however, by speaking a different selves. They differ in their origins and development histories and what we know about them and the Apologies to which they are subject and in the manner in which they contribute to human experience. The major distinction here is between self and person experience of the I and while there are at least two dominant ways of their rising this experience the first, as a collection of cognitive schemas and the second as a more complex integration of those schemas with other psychological processes the term focuses in on which a subject centered internal experience of the subject. Person, by contrast, is an other-centered term. It evokes and individuals understanding of the shared qualities of individuals like him or herself the common quality of those who have selves. Most anthropological discussions of the person takes its starting point from Mauss 1938 famous essay. Mauss pointed out that the concept of the reason changed considerably over time and across space. It was only in the Roman Empire, for example, the concept of the person came to refer to a locus of rights, which has remained the legal meaning of person in English and American law today. As Geertz 1983 points out the Western concept of the person is a rather peculiar idea within the context of world cultures. The distinction between identity and agency redescribes the internal/external opposition in more specific terms. Agency is the volitional capacity of all persons: their ability to choose, to intend, to act. When anthropologist talk about agency, they contrasted to structure, by which they tend to mean the external constraints on human freedom institution lies within the society the kinship structure, political structure, economic structure, and so forth. Identity tends to be used for a particular kind of self:the internal, subject-centered experience of unique agency. It would or should seem strange to say, his whole self is wrapped up in being an anthropologist. The words seemed to imply that even the way he located his body in a room and his memories of childhood were somehow centered on being an anthropologist. But to say, this whole identity is wrapped up in being an anthropologist mean that he thinks that the way he currently chooses, contains, and ask has a lot to do with the way he conceives of himself as an anthropologist and not as a chemist. The concept of self necessarily entails a sense of not being another person. Identity indexes a much sharper, more conscious sense of difference: having a different kind of agency, making different kinds of choices. The term activity then, should be use for a subject-centered sense of personal agency. It answers the question, who am I? By asking, what can I do in the world?

Contemporary Influences
There are three dominant influences on contemporary identity theory within anthropology. First is the literary, postmodern turn in the social sciences, this has brought an emphasis on narrative and performance. Identity becomes something, which individuals perform, enact, and present; the medium of performance is understood as narrative. Lavies poetics of military occupation 1990 is a good, relatively early, example of this kind of work. The goal of Lavies ethnography is to describe the way Bedouin have come to understand themselves as actors in the world. She presents this through presenting the performance of different Bedouin roles sheikh, the fool, old womanand through the stories Bedouin till about themselves. And she uses photographs, which unlike the photographs of most ethnographies enact the thesis of the book. Second is the emphasis on power and agency. Like the literary, postmodern turn, this influence permeates much of contemporary anthropology. Its relevance to identity theory lies in the way agency is understood to act within the constraints of external power. Ethnographies with these concerns focus on those who would seem deprived of power or in importance, and then demonstrate how even within the margins of the nation-state, or in the lowest ranks of the factory, people identify themselves as effect of actors in the world. Tsing in the realm of the diamond queen 1993 organizes her ethnography around a woman who was not only marginal in the eyes of most Westerners she lives in the Indonesian hills but in the eyes of her own people: she is intermittently psychotic and is the leader of the small, unpopular cult. Tsing uses her speeches as the vehicle to illustrate how those on such margins nevertheless conceived of themselves as effective actors and relationships to the center, and to some extent actually are. The third and most powerful influence comes from cultural studies and more specifically from postcolonial studies and identity politics. Postcolonial studies focuses on relationships between the colonizer and the colonized and identity politics on relationships between different races and/or gender but for both the central issue is an asymmetrical power relationship and his consequences. Memmis the colonizer and the colonized 1965 is a foundational text in postcolonial studies. Memmi argues that he who is colonized models himself on the colonizer, aping his customs and yearning for his appearance. He loses his past, he learns the history of Cromwell but nothing of his own progenitors. He grows embarrassed by his mothers tongue. The first ambition of colonized is to become equal to that splendid model ofthe colonizer and to resemble him to the point of disappearing in himself. The colonized agrees in Memmi words, to destroy himself and become what he is not. But then he learns that in the end the colonizer will reject them anyway, and he is filled with shame and self-hatred. Ultimately he has no choice but to recognize the anger in his ambivalence and to rebel. Revolt is the only way of the colonial situation and the colonizer realizes it sooner or later. And yet even if he is successful he remains still tortured, still living in a psyche defined by the colonizer, defined by what he is not. So he goes the drama of the man who is a product and victim of colonialism. He almost never succeeds in corresponding with himself. Frantz Fanon, in black skin, white masks 1967 road evening a more starkly about colonialism and race: for the black man there is only one destiny. And it is white. The terrible cost of colonialism in Fanons eyes is that, in yearning to be like the white colonizer, the black colonized man comes to except the white mans degrading vision of the black man and so to lose himself. He is alienated from himself when he feels most white, and he really hated when he feels most black. And so, perpetually, the black man is torn, rejecting himself to become white, only then to grasp a more terrible vision of his never to be scrubbed clean skin. A Negro is forever and combat with his own image. Identity politics takes essential relationship between a dominant group and a sub working group, an us and a them, and makes theories of how the attempts to change it. For those confronted by the inferiority of their skin, gender, or accent, should they are adopted the mainstream style and hope to be respected, or reject the main stream in order to be in a world in which its values will not matter? Those who write within this arena tend to see the route to political resolution of their problems through the conceptual deconstruction of the basic opposition. West, for example, rights of a double consciousness of the rejection of the mainstream and its association of blackness with inferiority while assimilating into it he writes admiringly of cultural workers who simultaneously position themselves within or alongside the mainstream while clearly a lined with groups without to keep alive potent traditions of critique and resistance. Bhabha another central boys in identity politics, similarly diagnosis the central problems of the colonized subject as ambivalence and hybridity. The colonial subject identifies with the colonizer and yet cannot be the colonizer. If he identifies with his nativeness he confronts his own condemnations; if he identifies with the westernization he has adopted he confronts his own alienation. Taking up of any one position within a specific discursive form in a particular historical conjecture is then always problematic. Bhabha uses the word hybridity to describe the solution, or condition, of the multiple defines itself which both reiterates and binary colonial categories and ultimately subverts them, but through echoes and not direct opposition. Bhabha suggest that the postcolonial subject the marginal subject is someone who feels that her capacity for self declaration has been taken from her repeatedly drew a long history in which she has been forced to conform to the dominant cultures prejudices and biases. As a result, the politics and identity politics become fragmented and complex. Another theorist Lata Mani argues that to understand these different perspectives as a unity sets of programmatic chains of equivalences between, say, people of color in the United States, people from the Third World, homosexualsit is not as though differences is not acknowledged, for an inventory of differences is crucial to this narrative; rather it is that difference is insufficiently engaged. Political affiliation becomes possible only through acknowledging difference because these politics are as much about selfhood as about political economy. Bhabha sees this complexity of identification as a condition of modernity. This does tend to be a view about elite and have money to spend at Tower Records but as elite many theorists agree. The anthropological James Clifford 1988 diagnosis contemporary identities and thus: will intervening in an interconnected world, one is always, to varying degrees, inauthentic: caught between cultures, implicated in others. Because this course in a global system is elaborated vis--vis, a sense of difference or distinctness can never be located solely in the conformity of a culture or tradition
Contemporary Identity
One could argue that the mastery of multiple narratives is the core project of the postmodern politics of identity. This perspective on identity is quite different from Eriksons naturalistic vision of an identity which can be intuited by an objective observer over a limited period of time. The most insistent message of these identity theorists is the refusal to be characterized by someone elses narrative and to assert their own authority and laying claim to a narrative of agency that ultimately may not be so different from those they have rejected. When Gayatri Spivak 1987, for example, denounces her characterization as a Marxist, a feminist, a deconstructionist she is famous for being 03, she does so, one suspects, not because she rejects the personal resonance of those categories for her, but because she resist having them impose. When members of an academic culture are complicit in the dicta that only women can write on feminism, only men may write about the mens movement, only African-Americans can write on Afro-American politics, we acknowledge the importance allowing those who have been disempowered to experience empowerment through the casting of their narratives of self-characterization. From the perspective of the politics of identity successful healthy, appropriate activity in a modern postcolonial context is less a self characterizing narrative with a mirroring world than a sense of command over narrative complexity: narratives which one has to some extent chosen, whose mastery gives one a sense of direction, adequacy and goodness. Rather than locating and dignity in a single narratives or in narratives matched to external approval, we capture more of the emphasis of these accounts in their experience of comfort and control in slipping from one narrative to another. This comfort is what Schaefer evokes in his account of the freeing of imprisoned analysand is unconstrained by narrative, but that the analysand comes the field that her narratives of personhood, complex and contradictory as they might be, are those that she has chosen that rather than being controlled by the brute oppression of a narrative externally imposed, she is in mastery of the narratives which structure her presentation of personhood to the world. But, as the decades past, the formulation will change again.
Identity Described from an Erikson Position
Eriksons psychological developmental theory is based upon the epigenetic principle that certain ego abilities will develop and a predictable stage sequence given an average expectable environment. He views I didnt see as the stage-specific task of adolescence. Although he has offered different definitions of identity at different times, a comprehensive one is: the integration now taking place in the form of the ego identity is more than the sum of the childhood identifications. It is the inner capital accrued from all those experiences of each successive stage, when meaningful identifications led to a successful alignment of the individuals basic drives with his endowment and his opportunities. In psychoanalysis we ascribe such successful alignments to ego synthesis Erikson 1959 and identity refers to a conscious sense of individual identity and unconscious striving for a continuity of personal character as a criterion for the silent doings of ego synthesis; and, finally, as a maintenance of an inner solidarity with eight groups ideals and identity. The period following puberty an before young adults is seen as a time when individuals need e.g. to be independent, to be sexually expressive and abilities e.g. psychological maturity, cognitive sophistication articulate with societal demands e.g. to began to put away childhood, to prepare for an occupation, and rewards e.g. granting of increasing autonomy, offering rewards occupational niches and relevant education/training. It is at this point in the life cycle that the individual is expected to begin to leave the childhood position of one who is given to and who takes to one who is to give to, and be responsible for others. A crucial shift in ideological perspectives is required to navigate this transition. This is one of the reasons that Erikson emphasized the importance of identity of an ideology, a kind of theory of oneself and ones social outlook: a weltanschauung. Shall hood worldviews are not serviceable in adult life, and adolescents constitutes the period of transition between the two. The size ideology, they know the area of importance in identity formation in adolescence is occupational choice. Making decisions about this area involves adolescents inner self-examination of their competencies, wishes, and goals and theyre our expiration of available rewarding social context. Therefore, one might say that an avid lesson is constructing and identity when he or she is exploring alternatives and establishing commitments in the life areas of ideology and occupation. Some of the childhood constituents whose development is necessary to identify formation.

Paper must be 8-10 pages long using APA guidelines. Must have in-text citations and a referance page. Must have a minimum of 15 references.

Working Outline

I. History
a. Give a detailed description of the inception of the group.
b. What was happening in that particular country which may have influenced the founding of the group?
c. What is the ideology of the group?
d. What was the social, political, economic, military and police condition of the country when the group was founded?

II. Leadership and Structure
a. Who are the major players in the organization (past and present)?
b. Include any external financial support.
c. What type of structure does the group have?
i. What is te operational structue?
ii. What is the political structure?

III. Activities
a. Give a description of the events that the group has participated in over the last five years.
b. How do these events help or hinder the goals of the group?
c. Has there been any splintering of the group?
i. If so, who splintered and for what reasons?

IV. Trend Analysis
a. What type of impact will this group have on the future?
i. Is it growing or decreasing in membership?
ii. Is there continuity in leadership?
iii. Is the country in which they operate more or less susceptible to terrorism (why or why not)?
iv. What has law enforcement or the government in that country done in responce to the terorist threat?
v. What is the current social, political, economic, military and police condition of the country where the group is based?

the research paper should be no fewer than 10 pages in length and make use of at least 10 peer-reviewed sources not covered in class, along with any assigned readings relevant to the subject.

I have only found 6 sources please use 4 more from reliable sites.

Research Paper Proposal

In the Late Pre-classic Period, a number of environmental changes took place in the Mayan Lowlands. Prevalent environmental degradation at the time led to a sudden decline of the civilization, which led a number of political and social implications in the region. Both anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic causes fronted this decline leading to a collapse of major urban centers. The climatic variability of the region has held a great significance on further development of the Lowlands, a topic my research paper wishes to explore.

In my research paper, I will aim to study the causes- both natural and man-made factors that led to environmental degradation. It will target scientific, methodological evidence to concur the devastation of the environment and its implications. The paper will aim to seek out reasons that led to the degradation and ultimate collapse of the civilization.

Furthermore, the paper will seek to establish the social and political changes, which were causations of the environmental collapse. An unsustainable region led people to abandon their homes and find new places to live. This led to a shift in settlements and an alteration in urban hierarchy. The paper will map out the changes in urban settlement, and draw out the societal, cultural and political implications that this had on the structure and construction of urban centers in the Mayan Lowlands. The paper will hope to chart out the socio-political complexities that the change in townships led to.

Using the sources stated below, the ultimate aim of the paper is to chart out the ill-effects of anthropogenic and natural causes that led to the major environmental damage in the Mayan Lowlands; forcing people to move in to newer regions, altering an already established socio-political structure to give way to a new one. The paper will chalk out the implications and consequences of the climatic changes on the people of Mayan Lowlands.

Bibliography:

1. Nicholas P. Dunning, Sheryl Luzzadder-Beach, Timothy Beach, John G. Jones, Vernon Scarborough, and T. Patrick Culbert; ?Arising from the Bajos: The Evolution of a Neotropical Landscape and the Rise of Maya Civilization?, 2002

2. Richard D. Hansen, Steven Bozarth, John Jacob, David Wahl, and Thomas Schreiner, ?Climatic and Environmental Variability In The Rise Of Mayan Civilization: A Preliminary Perspective From Northern Peten?, Ancient Mesoamerica, Cambridge University Press 2002

3. T. Beach, N. Dunning, S. Luzzadder-Beach, D.E. Cook, J. Lohse, ?Impacts of the ancient Maya on soils and soil erosion in the central Maya Lowland?, Catena, Volume 65, Issue 2, February 2006

4. David Freidel and Justine Shaw, ?The Lowland Maya Civilization: Historical Consciousness and Environment?, The Way The Wind Blows: Climate, History and Human Action, Columbia University Press, 2000 5. Douglas J. Kennett, Sebastian F. M. Breitenbach, Valorie V. Aquino, Yemane Asmerom, Jaime Awe, James U.L. Baldini, Patrick Bartlein, Brendan J. Culleton, Claire Ebert, Christopher Jazwa, Martha J. Macri, Norbert Marwan, Victor Polyak, Keith M. Prufer, Harriet E. Ridley, Harald Sodemann, Bruce Winterhalder, Gerald H. Haug, ?Development and Disintegration of Maya Political Systems in Response to Climate Change?, Science 9, Volume 338, November 2012

6. James J. Aimers, ?What Maya Collapse? Terminal Classic Variation in the Maya Lowlands?, 2007

(Friedal and Shaw) http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CTL1DskF3TsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA271&dq=The+Lowland+Maya+Civilization:+Historical+Consciousness+and+Environment?&ots=vwaapSi1UB&sig=LoE2-JD1A1aD6O6IiPN5J2KLvlQ#v=onepage&q=The%20Lowland%20Maya%20Civilization%3A%20Historical%20Consciousness%20and%20Environment?&f=false

We will pay $150.00 for this order!!

[Taken verbatim from the course handbook]

"ESSAY QUESTION:
"How was the slave trade practised in Europe and Africa before 1550, in comparison to the slave trade in and between the two regions after 1550? What were the main differences between the two periods in terms of their origins, motivations and effects on African society?"

Please do not exceed 2000 words. If you exceed this limit you may be penalised for excessive length.

You must have a bibliography and footnotes, both in MLA style. Remember that a bibiography also includes works which you have not cited, but found useful.

SUGGESTED READING:
these do not constitute all of your reading! You should have 12 to 15 sources at least. These are just to get you started:

1) Affonso of Congo, 'Evils of the Trade' in B. Davidson (ed.), The African Past: Chronicles From Antiquity to Modern Times (London, Longmans, 1967), pp.191-194.

2) W. Sollars (ed.), The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa the African Written by Himself (New York, Norton, 2001), pp.32-43.

3) 'A Letter to a Member of Parliament, 1745' in M.E. Wiesner et al Discovering the Global Past: A Look at the Evidence (Boston, Houghton, 2002), pp.105-108.

4) 'Excerpt from Richard Ligon, The True & Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes, 1673 in M.E. Wiesner et al Discovering the Global Past: A Look at the Evidence (Boston, Houghton, 2002), pp.110-115.

COURSE OUTLINE:
Old Worlds, New Empires 1250-1750 is a global history course. That doesn't mean that we'll study the history of the whole world, it means that we'll;
- make a comparative study of historical events, structures and processes around the globe
- try to analyse the wide-ranging impacts of events in various parts of the world, on other societies and cultures in other areas. For instance, why did the Black Death pandemic of 1347-51 apparently have very different effects in Europe and Asia? Why should the English takeover of Dutch colonies in 17th century America affect Indonesian contacts with North-Western Australia? We'll find out...

Two big questions raised in the course are:
- How did it come about that in 1250, the great Asian power-blocs and economies (the Mongol empire, the Indian Ocean trading region) held the balance of global wealth and influence; yet by 1750, European countries had established economic, political, and cultural dominance over much of the globe?
- What factors allowed, or caused, this major shift in power and influence?

This course covers a series of themes:
- how the world was viewed by people at different times and places
- how agrarian economies and class structures worked in different parts of the pre-modern world
- the effect of disease on world history
- what different political structures arose in different parts of the world, and why
- religious conversion and imperialism
- colonialism and its implications for gender relations and slavery.

MARKING CRITERIA:
A pass essay (50-59%) should:
answer the question, show why you've come to your conclusion; give some primary evidence for your argument; and show some indications that you've read a few reliable sources on the issue.

A credit essay (60-69%) should:
achieve evrything a pass essay does, but also; make a more sophisticated and critical argument; show extensive reading; and use primary sources critically.

A distinction essay (70-79%) should:
achieve everything a credit essay does, but also; make an original argument; show extensive reading (especially outside the given reading list); and show an ability to critique both primary and secondary sources.

A high distinction essay (80-100%) should:
achieve everything the other standards do, but also; show a highly original argument, and/or a very well-developed critical reading of both primary and secondary sources. A high distinction essay may also use a greater variety of sources, and address more profound theoretical questions of how best to write global history."

Forgive me if this is too much detail, I figured it would be better to include some information which may be irrelevant than accidentally exclude some which may have been useful. I understand that the texts in the suggested reading list are available at most university libraries. However, please don't hesitate to email me if you are having trouble getting hold of them and I will then email copies to you.
Thank you.

Answer the following questions in the paper for 3 different time periods of significant economic change in mexico.
1. what type of economic system is it? how does it operate?
2.How does the econmic system relate to the political structure?
3.How does it relate to the social structure?
4.what does the economic system mean to a poor family?
5.What does it mean to a middle class family? and wealthy family?
6.what does the economic system mean to a corporation?
7.what is th makeup of the capital base, labor base, and land base?
8.who controls the capital and land markets?
9.how do history and economics interrelate?
10.what is the prognosis for the future?
11.if you were a peace corps worker advising the government, what would your advice be?
12.what are the prospects of an american company seeking to establish operations under that economic system?

Historical development of Unification ideas in Europe after World War II---THIS IS THE TOPIC.

Please you can use this material as well.
Chapter Overview
The dominant approaches to understanding the early phase of European integration came from
international relations (IR). In particular, the study of integration was dominated by the competing approaches of neofunctionalism and intergovernmentalism. Although neofunctionalist theory
neatly i tted events in the 1950s and early 1960s, subsequent events led to its demise and the
rise of intergovernmentalist explanations. While theorizing European integration has moved on
signii cantly from these early approaches, much of what followed was either framed by this
debate or developed as a rejection of it. The debate about whether the EU is characterized by
intergovernmentalism or supranationalism still informs much of the academic work on the
subject.
?International theory? has been too readily written of by contemporary writers seeking to of er
theoretical treatments of the EU . . .
(Rosamond 1999: 19)
The signing of the Treaty of Paris in April 1951 by the governments of Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands (Chapter 6, p. 92) began
the process commonly referred to as European integration (see Insight 1.1). This process has meant that the economies of participating states, and subsequently other areas,
have been increasingly managed in common. Decisions previously taken by national
governments alone are now taken together with other governments, and specially created European institutions. Governments have relinquished the sole right to make
legislation (national sovereignty) over a range of matters, in favour of joint decision
making with other governments (pooled sovereignty). Other tasks have been delegated
to European institutions.
It was something of a surprise to academic theorists of IR when governments in
western Europe began to surrender their national sovereignty in some policy areas.
For the ? rst half of the twentieth century, the nation state seemed assured of its place
as the most important unit of political life in the western world, especially in Europe.
As such, the process of European integration constituted a major challenge to existing
theories and generated an academic debate about the role of the state in the process.
The two competing theories that emerged from IR to dominate the debate over early
1/29/2011 12:17:09 PMdevelopments in European integration were neofunctionalism (Haas 1958; Lindberg
1963) and intergovernmentalism (Hof mann 1964; 1966).
Before discussing these two main positions in the debate, it is necessary to consider
the intellectual context from which the idea of European integration emerged. Below
we look ? rst at the functionalist ideas of David Mitrany on how to avoid war between
nations, then at the ideas of the European federalists, and ? nally at the ?federal-
functionalism? of Jean Monnet. We then turn to look ? rst at neofunctionalism and
then at intergovernmentalism, before looking at two later contributions to this debate:
liberal intergovernmentalism and supranational governance.
The Intellectual Background
To understand the ideas that fed into the ? rst attempts to theorize European integration, it is useful to start with one of the approaches that was in? uential after the
Second World War about how to avoid another war. This ?functionalist? idea, which
Insight 1.1 European Integration
European integration has a number of aspects, but the main focus of Chapter 1 is on political integration. Ernst Haas (1968: 16) provided a dei nition of European political integration as a process, whereby:
political actors in several distinct national settings are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities toward a new center, whose institutions possess or demand jurisdiction over the pre-existing national states. The end result of a
process of political integration is a new political community, superimposed over the
pre-existing ones.
Implicit in Haas?s dei nition was the development of a European federal state. More cautiously, Lindberg (1963: 149) provided a dei nition of political integration as a process, but
without reference to an end point:
political integration is (1) the process whereby nations forego the desire and ability to
conduct foreign and key domestic policies independently of each other, seeking
instead to make joint decisions or to delegate the decision-making process to new central organs; and (2) the process whereby political actors in several distinct national
settings are persuaded to shift their expectations and political activities to a new
center.
The i rst part of this dei nition refers to two ?intimately related? modes of decision making:
sharing and delegating. The second part of the dei nition refers to ?the patterns of behaviour shown by high policy makers, civil servants, parliamentarians, interest group leaders
and other elites? (Lindberg 1963: 149), who respond to the new reality of a shift in political
authority to the centre by reorientating their political activities to the European level.

was particularly associated with the writings of David Mitrany, informed the United
Nations movement. It was a theory of how to achieve world peace, rather than a theory of regional integration, and it took a very dif erent approach to the question from
the European federalists, who wanted to subordinate national governments to an overarching federal authority. The ideas of both the functionalists and the federalists were
brought together in the ?functional-federalism? of Jean Monnet, which in turn provided one important source of intellectual inspiration for the neofunctionalist theory
of European integration.
Mitrany and Functionalism
David Mitrany (1888?1974) was born in Romania, but spent most of his adult life in
Britain and the United States. He was not a theorist of European integration. His concern was with building a Working Peace System, the title of his Fabian pamphlet (Mitrany
1966; ? rst published 1943). For Mitrany, the root cause of war was nationalism. The
failure of the League of Nations to prevent aggression prompted debate about a new
type of international system even before the outbreak of the Second World War. For
those who blamed the failure of the League on its limited powers, the response was the
development of an international federation. In other words, the League had not gone
far enough and the same mistake should not be repeated: henceforth, nations should
be tied more closely together.
Mitrany did not agree with the idea of federation as the means of tying states
together. He opposed the idea of a single world government because he believed that it
would pose a threat to individual freedom. He also opposed the creation of regional
federations, believing that this would simply reproduce national rivalries on a larger
scale. Any political reorganization into separate units must sooner or later produce the
same ef ects; any international system that is to usher in a new world must produce the
opposite ef ect of subduing political division.
Instead of either of these possibilities?a world federation or regional federations?
Mitrany proposed the creation of a whole series of separate international functional
agencies, each having authority over one speci? c area of human life. His scheme was
to take individual technical tasks out of the control of governments and to hand them
over to these functional agencies. He believed that governments would be prepared to
surrender control because they would not feel threatened by the loss of sovereignty
over, say, health care or the co-ordination of railway timetables, and they would be
able to appreciate the advantages of such tasks being performed at the regional or
world level. As more and more areas of control were surrendered, states would become
less capable of independent action. One day, the national governments would discover
that they were enmeshed in a ?spreading web of international activities and agencies?
(Mitrany 1966: 35).
These international agencies would operate at dif erent levels depending on the
function that they were performing. Mitrany gave the example of systems of communication. Railways would be organized on a continental basis; shipping would be
organized on an intercontinental basis; aviation would be organized on a universal
basis. Not only would the dependence of states on these agencies for their day-to-day
functioning make it dii cult for governments to break with them, but the experience
THEORIES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
1/29/2011 12:17:11 PMof the operation of the agencies would also socialize politicians, civil servants, and
the general public into adopting less nationalistic attitudes and outlook.
Spinelli and Federalism
A completely dif erent approach to guaranteeing peace was devised during the war in
the ranks of the various Resistance movements. It was a speci? cally European movement, and whereas Mitrany aimed explicitly to depoliticize the process of the transfer
of power away from national governments, federalists sought a clear transfer of political authority.
The European Union of Federalists (EUF) was formed in December 1946 from the
war-time Resistance movements. It was particularly strong in Italy, where the leading
? gure was Altiero Spinelli. Federalism appealed to the Resistance groups because it
proposed superseding nationalism. It is important to bear in mind that whereas in
Britain (and Russia) the Second World War was a nationalist war (in the former Soviet
Union, it was ?the great patriotic war?), in countries such as France and Italy it was an
ideological war. Resistance ? ghters drawn from communist, socialist, and Christian
democratic groups were in many cases ? ghting their own countrymen?Vichy supporters in France, Italian Fascists in Italy.
While being held as political prisoners of the Fascists on the island of Ventotene,
Spinelli and Ernesto Rossi (1897?1967) produced the Ventotene Manifesto (1941),
calling for a ?European Federation?. It argued that, left alone, the classes ?most privileged under old national systems? would seek to reconstruct the order of nation states
at the end of the war. While these states might appear democratic, it would only be a
matter of time before power returned to the hands of the privileged classes. This
would prompt the return of national jealousies and ultimately, to renewed war
between states. To prevent this development, the Manifesto called for the abolition of
the division of Europe into national, sovereign states. It urged propaganda and action
to bring together the separate national Resistance movements across Europe to push
for the creation of a federal European state.
The EUF adopted the Ventotene Manifesto, and began agitating for an international
conference to be called that would draw up a federal constitution for Europe. This
ambitious proposal was designed to build on what Milward called ?the wave of hope
for a better world and a changed future for the human race which had swept across
Europe? and which included an ?extraordinary wave of enthusiasm for European federation? (Milward 1984: 55).
The strategy of the EUF was to exploit the disruption caused by the war to existing political structures in order to make a new start on a radically dif erent basis
from the Europe of national states. They aimed to achieve a complete break from
the old order of nation states, and to create a federal constitution for Europe. Their
Congress took time to organize, though. It eventually took place in The Hague in
May 1948 (see Chapter 5, p. 83). By that time, the national political systems had
been re-established, and what emerged from the Congress was an intergovernmental
organization, the Council of Europe, not the new federal constitutional order for
which the federalists had hoped. Many federalists then turned to the gradualist
approach that was successfully embodied in the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
THEORY
6
1/29/2011 12:17:11 PM7
Monnet and Functional-Federalism
The plan for the ECSC was known as the Schuman Plan because it was made public by
the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, but it is generally accepted that it was
drawn up within the French Economic Planning Commission (Commissariat du Plan),
which was headed by the technocrat Jean Monnet. It was the task of the Planning
Commission to guide the post-war reconstruction and modernization of the French
economy, and it was through his experiences in this task that Monnet came to appreciate the economic inadequacy of the European nation state in the modern world. He
saw the need to create a ?large and dynamic common market?, ?a huge continental
market on the European scale? (Monnet 1962: 205). He aimed, though, to create more
than just a common market.
Monnet was a planner: he showed no great con? dence in the free-market system,
which had served France rather badly in the past. He placed his faith in the development of supranational institutions as the basis for building a genuine economic community that would adopt common economic policies and rational planning procedures.
Coal and steel were only intended as starting points. The aim was to extend integration to all aspects of the western European economy?but such a scheme would have
been too ambitious to gain acceptance all at once. There had been a clear indication of
this in the failure of previous ef orts to integrate the economies of France, Italy, the
Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg.
There was also a new factor in the equation, the key factor prompting Monnet?s plan:
the emergence in 1949 of a West German state. For Monnet, the existence of the
Federal Republic of Germany posed two problems in addition to that of how to create
an integrated western European economy. The ? rst problem was how to organize
Franco?German relations in such a way that another war between the two states would
become impossible. To a French mind, this meant how to control Germany. The pooling of coal and steel production would provide the basis for economic development as a
? rst step towards a ?federation of Europe?. Stimulating the expansion of those industries
for peaceful purposes would provide an economic alternative to producing war materials for those regions of Europe that had been largely dependent on providing military
material. The second problem facing Monnet was the very practical one of how to
ensure adequate supplies of coking coal from the Ruhr for the French steel industry.
The idea of pooling Franco-German supplies of coal and steel would tie the two states
into a mutual economic dependency, in addition to taking out of the immediate control of the national governments the most basic raw materials for waging another war.
Mitrany (1966) described Monnet?s strategy as ?federal-functionalism?. It is not clear,
though, how far Monnet was a federalist at all. He might be seen as a supreme pragmatist who proposed the ECSC as a solution to the very practical problems described
above. To solve these problems, Monnet adopted a solution similar to that of Mitrany:
remove control of the strategically crucial industries?coal and steel?from the governments and put it in the hands of a free-standing agency. This was the High
Authority of the ECSC, and in Monnet?s original plan it was the only institution proposed. The development of other supranational institutions came from other pressures
(see Chapter 7). The High Authority was the prototype for the later Commission of
the European Economic Community (EEC), which became central to the neofunctionalist theory of European integration.

World History-development of civilization
We will consider the effects of both World War I and II, the Cold war, and
mainly the changes modern technological warfare had on the political
structure, the impact of nationalism, and the world of new options and
opportunities for individual nations. thesis

Sources- non specific number what ever is needed
Specifications are as follows:
I have started this paper and have included what I have so far. I would
like a writer who has a good world history background to go through this
paper, edit, delete, add to and generally make it into a historical
summation of this particular time era, with these particular historical
events. Secondly, I need to include a section that uses a particular
historical theme and show how this theme helped to shape the development of
the West.
I will be sending all the information the writer will need through regular
e-mail to your resources. I could not get paypal system to accept my
information as i had written it.

We will pay $230.00 for this order!!

1)Sources should be 10 books and 10 journals..(academic sources please).

2) It's a 3000-word essay, but i want it to be 23 words over; all pages shouldn't be exactly 300 words; and please use footnotes (it's a 200 level African History essay)

3) Use both sides of the arguments to depict the impact (according to some) and the non-impact (according to some)of Western education in Ethiopia; and leave the reader to come to his/her own conclusion

4) Below is my intro and thesis that i had started with before. You can either carry on with it, or re-write another-with the same subject matter and analysis:


Many have pondered if there was any influence through Western education in Ethiopia, in the

first and second quarter of the 1900s-due to the fact that Ethiopia was never formally

colonized by any nation-and the impact, if any, that it has on Ethiopia and Ethiopians. Some

have argued that, indeed, there was a considerable influence and impact of Western

education and ideology during that period, because it brought about 'Westernized'

intellectual reformists to the corridors of the Ethiopian political structure; while others

argue that there was no influence or impact of Western education on Ethiopia, because

Ethiopia(ns) did not want them in the first place; and Ethiopia, with its deep-rooted

cultural, religious, and ideological beliefs, was not going to trade neither of these with

the Europeans.

In this paper, I shall attempt to touch on both sides of the arguments, to see if the

Western education, if any, had an impact or influence on some Ethiopians; and also to see

the reaction and/or receptiveness of Ethiopians to this Western education and/or ideologies.

It will then be left for you to draw your own conclusion(s).

Let me begin with the arguments of those who thought there was considerable impact of

Western education and influence of some, if not most, Ethiopians.

As noted in the discussion of the Individual Term Paper above, there are many different ways in which governments have approached their social responsibilities. Most industrialized nations have devised social programs, health care being one, which provides benefits to all (universal coverage). choose one industrialized nation and devolop a presentation to the class in a ten page paper (exclusive of cover page, abstract page, or reference list) to desribe the history, demographics, and political structure that led to the development of their health care system. Sweden,. The presentation should:

describe the major health conditions facing the country
review how the health care system is organized and financed
show some of the salient ways in which the system differs from the US system
end by discussing from theteam's perspective one lesson that the US might learn from this system to improve access, cost, or quality of our health care.

As noted above in the Individual Term Paper, at least five articles from peer reviewed journals or governmental agencies must be included in the reference list.

Identify and describe four (4) examples of U.S. federal government expansion of authority between the beginning of the U.S. Civil War and the end of the Civil Right Era.
These examples must be placed in the context of the importance of the following developments in the United States:
Political structures
Social structures
Economic structures
Format your response using APA document guidelines, to include a title page, abstract page, content, and reference page. Citations and references should use APA style standards.

University, undergraduate (Jr. year) Research Paper, 2500 words (not including Work Sited page). MLA format. A minimum of 8 entries in the Work Sited page no more than 2 from the Internet, no more than 2 from encyclopedias, Available books must be the majority of works sighted/quoted in text. Works Sited page (in MLA) needed but no bibliography or footnotes needed. Minimum of 5 quotations in blocked MLA format with (page number). No use of chapters or sub-headings desired. Answer the question: ?who are the native peoples of the Aleutian Island chain?? specifically the Aleute/Alutiiq. Origins, migration theories (land and by boat), Cultural distinctions and language. Social / political structures past and present. Interactions and influence of other native peoples in the area. European/Russian and American non-native people influences on culture and impacts. Current status of the native peoples in the Aleutian chain, discribe: Government restitution, Aleut International Association, Aleut Corporation. Current Population, concentrations. Use U.S.A. derivations of English words.

Essay Question >>> Foundations; Compare the Meiji Restoration and the founding of the German Reich. Identify both similarities and differences in the origin and nature of these events. Refer also to the social groups involved and the nature of the changes they wrought and social and political structures they created.

NOTE; Make sure you answer the specific question; don?t write a vague discussion on the general topic & PLEASE avoid historical narratives, they are analytical and comparative.

written in 12 point Times New Roman font, double spaced.

must have internal citation. and works cited page

each Topic must have heading and sub-topic heading in bold print, a hybrid between an outline and an essay, i.e. :

First Page,The culture's basic structure.First page must deal with each of the topics, history, language, religion of the earliest Altaic (Turkic) peoples and the five countries of that region branched form the Altaic region(not at great lengths)
a. History(include region/geographical location of the Altai mountains and how it branched out into creating roots for Indian, Korean, Mongol, Japanese and even Chinese.
b.Earliest Writing and language of the peoples
c. Earliest Religion
d. Earliest political structures
Second page must deal with Summary of the Altaic creation epic adapted by Gene Doty from Gulten Yener's prose translation.
a.Author
b.language style
c.type of work(poem/prose)
d.setting
e.point of view
f.Main Characters(with sub-sub topics of who is the antagonist and the protagonist)
g. the plot(what happens??)

The third and fourth pages should deal with Analysis choose a theme from the Altaic(Turkic)creation myth and it should be the first line of the Analysis.
develope and provide examples and evidence of the theme. EXPLAIN HOW the author(Gene Doty and Gulten Yener)developed the theme. Use the element of fiction, remembering that the author uses characters, setting, point of view, and time to develope themes of their work.
Fifth and sixth pages are on Comparison of The Altaic Creation Myth with Popol Vuh. Use more than just data. use insights.
a. similarities with Popol Vuh
b.differences between Popol Vuh

Seventh pages works cited in MLA format:

Altaic Creation Epic is found at this web address, http://web.mst.edu/~gdoty/poems/altaic/creation.html

Popol Vuh is found in the Norton Anthology of World Literatue

Altaic Language can be found with EBSCO Host search for Altaic language or also known as Uralic language

Britannica Online Encyclopedia used for finding Turkic religion and writing.

Info on the evolution of the culture found at web address, http:// www.angelfire.com/ca2/kushana/Migrations.html

other sources that can be used are,
Frye, R.N., The Heritage of Central Asia(1996)- Covers the history of the Altaic region
Barber, E.W.,The Mummies of Urumchi(1999)-for linguistic evidence of mixture of Chinese with Altaic peoples



There are faxes for this order.

Composition I Cause and Effect Essay

The major writing assignment for this week is to compose a cause and effect essay of approximately 600-700 words. The following is the suggested topic:

In "Black Men and Public Space," Staples describes circumstances that often result in fear. Focusing on a more positive emotion, like admiration or contentment, illustrate the situations that tend to elicit that emotion in you. Discuss why these circumstances have the effect they do.

Please apply APA guidelines, a strong thesis and conclusion. I would prefer the focus to be on the positive emotion of contentment. Include background on forces that perhaps direct human behavior...the cause....the effects and the coping is finding contentment(maybe)---I've started an outline but I think it needs polish...and the connection to positive feelings.....

1. The socioeconomic and political structures, which result in the arrangement of people into classes, influence (and in some cases even dictate) how much access to knowledge we have, what kinds of cultural products we consume, what thoughts we think, what we can do with our lives, who our friends and lovers are, where we live, what kinds of cars we drive, even the kinds of sicknesses we have or how long we will live.

2. Social institutions:
a. The State has final say on whether we exist or have ceased to be (through those little pieces of paper we call birth/death certificates), the age of consent, where we can travel or if we can travel at all, whether we can drive or not, who we can (no same-sex) and how many people we can marry (no bigamy/polygamy). Of course things are much worse among people governed by totalitarian states which have power over life and death.
b. In countries where the Church still matters, or where there's no separation between Church and State, it pretty much substitutes for the State.
c. The Family has first crack in reproducing people who are not much different from those who came before. It instills us with values that make us "fit" for functioning in society. It indoctrinates us in the ways of the world as well as the finer points of societal expectations.
d. The School continues where the family leaves off. It is where we learn conformity and get our first taste of bullying and alienation for being different. It is where we develop friendships and connections that continue long after we've left university in the form of "old boy/girl networks" that can undermine or even subvert any meritocracy which may be in place.
e. The Media churns out and regurgitates ideas that are meant to keep power and wealth within a very few. They sell cheap dreams meant for us to drool over all sorts of consumer goods, teach us to mouth the latest buzz words and be hip to the latest fads even amongst the intellectual elite who are supposed to be equipped with more power of discernment. They put us in a trance of knee-jerk mass consumption by constantly bombarding us with images that produce false needs.

We will pay $125.00 for this order!!

This paper should be rich in detail and site only scholarly sources such as books, scholarly articles, and scholarly journals. You are to research the American style of warfare during the Revolutionary War, with particular attention to General Washington's "Fabian Strategy," and the tactics of subordinate commanders such as Nathanael Greene, Francis Marion, and Colonel Daniel Morgan. The second aspect of your paper are the advantages and disadvantages of both sides, with particular attention to the obstacles faced by the Continental Army and how these obstacles were overcome. Finally, be sure to detail the effects of the Revolutionary War on American Society, its political structure, and finally, the changes in warfare itself. Include footnotes of scholarly sources only! I am relying on this paper. If I do not get a good grade I fail and get kicked out of my university. Please help me.

Please rewrite

Communications Plan
Developing and Managing an Effective Marketing Communications Plan
Customers are the main focus when developing and managing an effective communications plan for any product. The current generation and future generations of customers demand products at a rapid and above reasonable pace. Even if marketers wanted to overlook it, the success of the company is driven by the satisfaction of the customers. Today, marketing communications are increasingly seen as an interactive dialogue between the company and its customers. Companies are concerned with how they can reach the customers and how to receive feedback from the customers.
Direct marketing is one of the fastest-growing avenues for serving customers. More businesses have turned to direct mail and telemarketing in response to the high and increasing costs of reaching business markets through a sales force (Kotler & Keller, 2006). Studies have shown that direct marketing is one of the fastest ways to increase sales. Kudler Fine Foods will use direct marketing as one of their primary communications sources when promoting and advertising organic meats.
Kudler?s leadership will develop a marketing flowchart, which identifies all marketing channels. These channels will reflect how marketers can reach their customers and the monthly sales. Each month the chart will be updated to reflect an increase or decrease in sales through the identified channel. Evaluations of these channels and their results will help Kudler to identify which form of communication needs to be enhanced to meet their goals.
Advertising and Promotion
Kudler has an outstanding product line with its organic meats; however convincing the consumer to buy will require strategy. Television commercials and radio ads are expensive and newspaper ads are not cheap in quantity so it is imperative Kudler budgets appropriately. Relationship marketing will prove beneficial for Kudler for that very reason. More people are purchasing organic food than ever before. Kudler will partner with other, non-competitor, organic farms in the United Kingdom. Customers, who purchase their organic food items as a result of a referral from a partnered farm, will receive 10% off their purchase at the referred farm. In addition, Kudler will offer low-income families the opportunity to volunteer their services on the farms for an additional discount off their purchases, which will help with word of mouth advertising. Relationship marketing is a powerful tool if used properly.
Technology Trends
Current technology trends that influence the ability of a company to market its product include increasing shared services and data warehousing as well as a continued integration of third part point solutions. The use of a shared services and data warehousing means that more information is disseminated in the same system and can be accessed by different areas of the organization. The addition of third party integration means that data from other systems can be captured and pulled for tracking purposes, meaning aspects of the supply chain such as the position of product in shipment is accessible in real-time for customer feedback.
All of these threads of data capture, along with data warehousing, improves reporting and analysis of the information in both real-time and post transaction forums. In the case of real-time analysis dashboards have become very popular over the past five years they provide a view of key metrics to allow management by exception. Where post transaction data is being analyzed, data warehousing provides the ideal methodology for enhanced forecasting from the data. This also allows the ability to look for improvements in the supply chain, operations, and marketing to adjust processes and refine a message for marketing as part of a continuous improvement program.
Marketing Communication Strategies
Domestic Marketing
Domestic marketing consists of four guiding principles that include Knowledge Based Promotion. This principle ensures that the product gets promoted in the marketplace where the message is directed to the appropriate audience, communicates a competitive advantage as well ensuring it will last over time.
The second principle is Building Loyalty. This principle ensures that marketers put their product where it is not overshadowed by the alternatives and the influences of fashion trends are reduced. The third principle is Parameters Not Formulas. This principle ensures that every product is unique and is targeted to a specific audience. The fourth principle, Meeting the Genuine need, focuses on the customer to ensure his or her needs are met (Efroze Chemical Industries Ltd, n.d.).
International Marketing
International marketing is a strategy, which uses the same techniques as in the company?s home country although additional factors should be considered before expanding internationally. The considerations include understanding the demographic, size, market segmentation, distribution channels, growth, and physical environment.
Domestic versus International
Domestic marketing. Domestic marketing is targeted primarily at a single market. This single market is the company?s domestic market. The company faces only one set of competitors, the present economy.
International marketing. International marketing goes beyond simply exporting into facilitating several sets of competitors, multiple economies, and challenging market issues. International marketing requires consideration of unique cultures and customs, economic and political structures, demographic challenges, and supply chain issues as well as complexity of the customs associated tariffs.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this creation of a marketing communication plan will help to create more sources of revenue. This is the best way to react to the broadest market with our product. The value for a product must meet the need of the target audience (Method 123 Ltd, 2010). In our product launch for organic meats, Team C has included both domestic and international markets. This marketing communications plan is to build awareness and will motivate customers to buy.
References
Business Training Schools. (2011). Marketing communications: what message are you sending to your customers? Retrieved from http://www.business-training-schools.com/a/marketing-communications.html
Efroze Chemical Industries Ltd. (n.d.). Domestic marketing. Retrieved from http://www.efroze.com/Marketing/DomesticMarketing.aspx
Kotler, P., & Keller, K.L. (2006). Marketing management (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Method 123 Ltd. (2010). A marketing communications plan. Retrieved from http://blog.method123.com/2011/02/07/a-marketing-communication-plan/

I need a business plan for an international business located in Guatemala exporting Guatemalan coffee to Japan specifically and international as well.

FOLLOW THIS EXACT TEMPLATE PLEASE:

International Business Plan Template

1. Executive Summary

Nature of the opportunity

Scope of the opportunity

Why this opportunity?

Why this country?

Financing requirement

Risk assessment

Return on investment

Request for action

2. Nature of business

Summary description

Corporate mission statement (if any)

Corporate history:

? Founders

? When established

? Key milestones

Core competencies:

? Product

? Process

? Technology

? Service

? Operations

? Other

3. Customer Profile

Characteristics of users:

? Age categories

? Occupations

? Income levels

? Other distinguishing features

Who makes the purchasing decision (if different from users)?

Spending patterns of buyers:

Place of product in spending

Disposable income

Factors influencing purchase:

? Price

? Quality

? Features

? Time to market

? Reliability of supply

? After-sales service

? Fads and trends

? Other

4. Current market

Total domestic market for product or service:

? By value

? By volume

? Current and projected trends

? Geographical distribution

Company?s share of domestic market:

? By value

? As a percentage

? Current trends

Company?s foreign markets (if any):

? By value

? By country

? Current trends

5. Description of product or service

What is the need it fills?

Technical description

Distinguishing features differentiating product or service from its competition.

Expected life cycle of current offering:

Can it become obsolete or is overtaken by replacement offerings?

Renewal strategy

? Quality improvements

? Enhanced features

? Replacement offerings

6. Marketing Strategy

Significant trends in the marketplace

? Demographic and social changes

? Macroeconomic factors

? Technological developments

? Regulatory changes

Emerging opportunities for the company

Marketing objectives:

By volume

By market share

By characteristics of target market

Marketplace positioning

Pricing strategy

7. Sales activities

Available resources:

? Internal sales staff

? External sales force (e.g. agents, distributors)

? Sales budget

Sales tactics:

? Promotional techniques

? Special offers

? Unique features of sales approach

Results

8. Intellectual property

Proprietary technologies embedded in the product or service

Proprietary production processes

Patents held

Trademarks, trade names, copyrights, etc.

R&D capabilities

Current R&D activities

R&D objectives

9. Operations

Plant or premises:

? Size

? Location

? Features

? Ownership

? Applicable leases

Equipment:

? Description

? Age

? Applicable leases

Capacity:

? Maximum capacity

? Current utilization

Cost of overheads:

? Materials

? Labor

? Administration

? Rents, leases and utilities

? Marketing and sales

? Other

Inventory:

? Current levels (by number)

? Estimated value

10. Human resources

Number of employees

Functional areas:

? Number in each area

? Skill requirements by area

Educational levels

Gaps in available skills

Recruitment and training strategy

11. Supplier network

Key inputs required:

? By type

? By value

Current suppliers:

? Name

? Location (domestic or foreign)

? Inputs supplied

? Value of orders

Purchasing strategy:

? Supplier qualification

? Method of ordering

? Special techniques (e.g. Just-in-Time ordering)

? Controls

12. Physical distribution

Distribution requirements:

? Nature of product or service

? Order processing

? Handling and shipping techniques used

? Special requirements

Internal capabilities:

? Storage and warehousing

? Preparation and handling

? Shipping

External service suppliers:

? Shipping and handling

? Carriers

? Insurance

? Name of supplier

? Average annual business volume

13. Financial performance: past five years

Year

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Gross sales

Cost of goods

Gross profit

Cost of sales

Administration

Pre-tax profit

Taxes

After-tax profit

Explanations

14. Financial performance: five-year projection

Year

Current

+1

+2

+3

+4

Gross sales

Cost of goods

Gross profit

Cost of sales

Administration

Pre-tax profit

Taxes

After-tax profit

Assumptions

15. Financial requirements of existing business

Scenario

Cash flow projection

Case requirement

High

Medium

Low

Key Assumptions

16. Possible financing sources

Operations

Commercial lenders

Investors

Government sources

Other situations

17. Proposed application of funds

R&D

Capacity expansion

Marketing initiatives

Training

18. Ownership and structure

Share structure and owners

Senior management

Directors

19. Risk Analysis

Currency

? Hedging

? Forward contracts

? Transfer pricing

? Asset valuation

Country

? Expropriation

? Discriminatory treatment

? Repatriation funds

? Political environment

Company

? Credit check

? Dispute mechanisms

? Performance bonds

Project management

? Performance bonds

? Reporting systems

? Decision-making mechanisms

Insurance

? EDC

? Private

20. Conclusion and recommendations

21. Appendices: Additional supporting information (prepare list)

Management biographies

Product literature

Letters of reference, awards

Patents

Major contracts

Asset valuations

Descriptions of assets

Relevant studies

Financial data:

? Cash flow projection

? Profit and loss statement

? Balance sheet

? Auditor?s report

Antigua Guatemala Coffee Info
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------





Tucked away in a valley and nestled between three volcanoes, lies beautiful Antigua, Guatemala; it is in this climatically diverse region that you will find the local farmers growing some of the world?s finest coffee. This region is perfect for cultivating coffee; with ample rainfall, elevations reaching 4,600 feet, and a constant humidity of 65%, it makes absolute sense for coffee to be the number one industry in Guatemala.

This highly rated and well-known gourmet coffee is light-medium roasted to brew into full-bodied coffee with unique smoky and chocolaty undertones. Richly complex and well-balanced, this gourmet coffee from Guatemala has hints of spice in the finish that will please the senses.





25 lbs. Guatemala Antigua Fresh Roasted Coffee Beans

Fresh Roasted Coffee Beans
Guatemala Antigua
________________________________________
Specifics:
? Name: AGAIG
? Origin: Guatemala
? Region: Antigua
? Altitude: 1200-2000
? Processing Method: Washed
? Drying Method: European Prep
Cupping Notes:
Spices,citrus,toasted nuts.
About this Coffee:
Valley Coffee Roasters and Pete have been custom roasting for As Green As It Gets for a few years now. It just seemed funny for us to keep buying our Guatemalan coffee from anyplace else. On August 11 2011 I called AGAIG and now we are buying our Antigua direct from the growers! This is just one of a few coffees I hope to buy direct like this. Remember Direct Trade is getting all of the money back to the growers and IMHO is far better than any Fair Trade Certified coffee.
________________________________________
From As Green As It Gets Site
Our farmers are exporting 21 tons of coffee! This export represents the combined efforts of over 300 people from 64 farming families. From humble beginnings, we have grown from 800 lbs to 42.000 lbs a year, and we're still growing!. Their capital investments continue to grow.
This certified scale weighs legal export weight.

This sewing machine seals each bag in seconds compared to the twenty minutes it takes to sew a bag by hand.

Our farmers have their own export license, export plantation code, FDA registration, tax-payer id number, certified receipts, a legal business entity with board of directors, registered land titles, and a host of legal paperwork to make them bonafide producers and exporters. That?s exciting, but not as exciting as #24378.
This year, the farmers are exporting as Plantation #24378.

That number indicates that the government of Guatemala has recognized them as legal, registered, independent producers and exporters of coffee.

Guatemala History
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


The golden age and decline of the Maya empire

In 1542, 32 years after Columbus had discovered America, under Pedro de Alvarado the Spanish invaded the region, which now is Guatemala. At this time this region was highly populated by the descendants of the Maya, who, in the years 300 until 900 AD, had known a cultural golden age, in which they had developed a very precise script of words and pictures as well as mathematical and astronomical knowledge. Reasons for the decline of the Maya empire have not been resolved clearly until now. In the opinion of a lot of scientists, an ecological catastrophe destroyed the former flourishing Mayan metropolises that afterwards were overgrown by the rain forest. Therefore, at the time of the Spanish invasion, the Mayan descendants lived in very simple circumstances, pursued agriculture and were in close contact to nature.


"Discovery" of America

By the invasion of the Spanish, the living standards of the Mayas got worse dramatically. They were driven out or forced to work; they suffered from mistreatment, hunger and diseases brought in from Europe. Within a very short time the population of 800,000 reduced to approximately 100,000.


Independence of Guatemala

At the end of the 18th century, resistance was formed by the country exploited by the Spanish Crown which led to independence of Guatemala in 1821. After independence, huge coffee and banana plantations were formed that were led by domestic big landowners and increasingly by foreign companies, e.g. the "United Fruit Company". Politically the country was unstable and subject to dictatorial regimes. The dictatorship of Jorge ?bico (1933 - 1944) can be seen as the climax of the ordinary people's suffering. During this dictatorship all of Guatemala turned into a "big private madhouse", as quoted by a Times correspondent at the time. The Ind?genas, as the Mayan descendants are called today, were deprived of all their rights and tortures and shootings reached alarming and unbearable proportions. In an uprising of the public population, government was removed and nine years of democracy followed.

Under President Juan Jos? Ar?valo, who was elected in 1945, general electoral law was ratified, trade unions were legalized and literacy programmes were carried out. But when Jacobo Arbenz, his successor, wanted to carry out a land reform in which the Guatemalan plantations as well as the United Fruit Company were planned to be expropriated, the government was overthrown with financial help of the US and the support of the CIA in 1954.


Acts of terror and troops of death

During the following decades and with changing governments, the country remained in the hands of the powerful elite that was formed by big landowners, the army and increasingly industrialists. The oppression of a large part of the population was carried on with by extended states of emergency, acts of terror and troops of death.


Policy of the burned ground

At the end of the 70s, the guerrillas began to recruit again after several years of peace. President Romeo Lucas Garc?a, holding office at the beginning of the 80s, tried to fight them by introducing his "policy of the burned ground", which meant destroying whole villages and the killing of a lot of people, mostly of the indigenous population. Garcia?s successor, the religious fanatic Rios Montt, who became president in 1982, was pursuing the same politics more radically. During the 17 months of Rios Montt's dictatorship in Guatemala, the Guatemalan population suffered from the most horrible crimes of the civil war, which lasted more than 36 years: 440 villages were razed to the ground, 50,000 people "disappeared" and more than 100,000 people were killed. Those responsible have not been called to account yet and Rios Montt had immunity as president of the Congress until 2003.



On the way to democracy

Since 1986 Guatemala has been governed by civil presidents, but it wasn't until 1993, when the human rights representative of the government, Ramiro de Le?n Carpio, was called into office as new president, that hope arose on a process of establishing a real democracy. As prisoner between the interests of the army and the economy, he did not achieve any far-reaching reforms either. In 1996 Alvaro Arz? became president. His biggest achievement was the successful conclusion of the peace negotiations, which lasted nearly 10 years and the signing of the final peace contract on 29 December 1996 that put an end to the 36 years of civil war.


The peace contract of 1996

After euphoria, disillusion followed quickly. Until today, economic and political structures remain unchanged and the realisation of a lot of contract issues still are slowed down. In only a few sectors progress had been made, like the reform in the justice system. For a while long prison sentences against members of the army, who were made responsible for the murder of bishop Gerardi four years ago, in the last year, were considered as big results against the general exemptions from punishment. Two days before he was killed, Bishop Gerardi had presented the human rights report on the crimes committed by the army during the civil war. In October 2002, the sentence mentioned above was annulled. Now, after another appeal against this verdict by the defence, this case lies in the responsibility of the constitutional court.

Unfortunately, the death of Bishop Gerardi is not an exception: It is still very dangerous in Guatemala to fight for human rights and to support coming to terms with the dark past of the country. Everyday, activists and offices of human rights organisations as well as a lot of journalists are threatened with death, are attacked and killed in many cases. Obviously, still there are a lot of people (especially in higher ranking positions in the government and army) that are in full consciousness of their guilt and responsibility during the period of the armed conflict and therefore fear any solving of these crimes.

We hope that the peace process, which is stagnating so obviously and only can be seen as a retrograde step in some sectors, will be put on the right track and manifestation of the peace expected will be realised as soon as possible during the following years.
A Short History of Guatemala

Early Mayan civilization and culture began to develop around 2000 B.C., all throughout the territory that we currently know as southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador and western Honduras. The first period of Mayan civilization is referred to as the Pre-classic period and it occurred at the same time as the Golden Age of Greece and the conquests of Alexander the Great, lasting until around 250 A.D. The Classic period (following the pre-classic), was contemporary to the fall of the Roman Empire, and covers the years from 250 A.D. to 900 A.D. Following the classic period is the Post classic period from 900 A.D. up until the Spanish conquest of Guatemala in 1524.
The Maya were considered one of the most developed human cultures of their time. They established trade routes throughout the area mentioned above, and also traded with other people in surrounding areas, e.g. with Teotihuacan. The most powerful Mayan cities during the height of Mayan civilization were Tikal, Calakmul, Caracol, Uaxact?n, Yaxh?, Chichen Itz?, El Mirador, Nakbe, Cop?n, Palenque, Yaxchil?n, and Kaminaljuy?. These cities were commercial and spiritual centers. They traded jade, obsidian, quetzal feathers and liquidambar resin from the highlands, seashells, fish and salt from the coast, and cacao, cotton, and macaw feathers from the lowlands. Each city was ruled by a k'ul ajaw, a king of god status, who ruled a united secular and religious realm.

Ball game court in front of the Temple I in Tikal.
Centers of the ancient cities were characterized by plazas, temple pyramids, and ball courts, all designed to model the landscapes surrounding the cities. Pyramids were symbols of the mountains and home to the gods. Ball game courts were symbols for the valleys between the mountains and were considered the entrances to the underworld. The wide central plazas symbolized the surfaces of lakes, which were thought to be the surface of the underworld. Celebrations and sacrificial ceremonies were held on the stage of this sacred landscape (Freidel et al. 1993).
All of the ruins which can be seen today survived under the thick cover of the rainforest for centuries before being uncovered. Today they help us recreate the history of the ancient Maya, together with the arts and crafts and written testimonies carved in stone, written on paper and on pottery. The Maya used the most complex writing system of all American cultures up to their time. They also used an advanced calendar based on exact astronomic observations. Mayan mathematics included the concept of zero and agriculture was dominated by corn, which is still the main base of the Guatemalan diet today.

Itzamn? - Maya god of creation, drawing from Dresden Codex, 1500 A.D. (Post-classic Period).
The late Classic period was characterized by many autonomous city centers that were often in conflict with each other, trying to divide up political territories. The mystery surrounding the collapse of the major Mayan sites in the 9th century continues today. One possible theory is the idea that the uncontrolled exploitation of resources by the Maya (slash and burn agriculture for example), long dry seasons, overpopulation, illnesses, wars, invasions and obstruction of trade routes, depleted the resources needed to support such a large population and caused the civilization to fold upon itself. Either way, what is known is that the main centers of the Classic Period were abandoned and the populations diminished at the end of this period and later on, in the Post classic period, only smaller towns were known to exist around lake Pet?n Itz?. During the late Post Classic period the central towns were Tayasal, at lake Pet?n Itz?, and Topoxt?, at lake Yaxh?.
The long history of the Mayans ruling the majority of Mesoamerica ended with Spain's conquest of their lands. Spain entered to find new lands and resources to exploit and with their conquest they reduced Mayans to smaller populations and established their own cities on top of the Mayan ruins. Thus began three centuries of exploitation by the Spanish of the Mayan people, called the Colonial era, from 1524 to 1821. In 1524 Pedro de Alvarado began the conquest of the geographical area which is now known as part of Guatemala. He founded the first Spanish capital over the Mayan site of Iximch?, the former capital of the Cakchiquel Kingdom. From then on Spain continued to conquer Mayan population centers and defeated the last significant Mayan population in 1697 in Tayasal, capital of the Itzaes of Pet?n. In one of Alvarado's battles Tec?n Um?n was raised to national hero status for his valiant fight against his Spanish intruders.
The name Guatemala was derived from "Quauhtemallan", which means 'place of abundant flowers' or from "Guauthemallan", which means 'place of trees' in the Aztec Nahuatl language. This name was given by the Tlaxcaltecas who came with Pedro de Alvarado to conquer this land. During the colonial time the capital of Guatemala changed location many times due to natural disasters. The capital "Guatemala de la Asunci?n", as it is today, was not named until 1776 after a severe earthquake which destroyed much of the previous capital, the city which is now Antigua Guatemala. During this time trading coalitions were established with Europe and the Catholic Church's influence was solidified throughout the whole country. Even though the Catholic Church tried to impose its beliefs on Mayans, some Maya codices and chronicles, with historical and religious information, were documented, preserved and even translated into Spanish by members of the very same Catholic Church. These members of the church had befriended certain Mayan leaders and were not comfortable forcing their religion upon the Mayans. In the 19th century various indigenous rebellions took place at different points in the country. Out of these rebellions rose another indigenous hero: Atanasio Tzul. He was made famous for leading a rebellion in the Quich? province of Totonicap?n in 1820.


Guatemala's flag and the emblem of liberty in 1821.
In 1821 the Modern Period began with the independence of Guatemala from Spain. A political union of all the countries from Central America took place from 1823 to 1839, known as Central American Federation. The central Government of it was situated in Guatemala, but finally all countries split like we know them today: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. No national currency was declared until 1924. Then the "Quetzal" was introduced, owing its name to the national bird.
Since pre-colonial times the Mayans have always used the slash-and-burn agriculture and it is still the most common method for cultivation of corn, the base of the Guatemalan diet. During and after the Colonial period, Guatemala exported products which had been originally processed by the Mayan people, such as cacao and Spanish Red, which is a dye extracted from cochineal insects. At the end of the 19th century numerous German immigrants came to Guatemala and planted large areas with coffee for exportation. This is how coffee "fincas" or farms originated and today they are still producing some of the finest coffees in the world. The 20th century began with strong investments from the United Fruit Company to establish banana plantations in Guatemala. The company signed a contract with then president Estrada Cabrera to grow and trade bananas, and thus began a decade of strong influences of the banana trade in Guatemalan power politics.
In 1960 a civil war began that lasted for 36 years, taking the life of thousands of Guatemalans, and not officially concluding until the signing of Peace Accords between the government and guerilla forces in 1996. Since the Peace Agreements were signed, their implementation has been given close attention by the international community while the national government has swayed from strong intentions to implement agreements in the accords to a seemingly disinterested stand on the matter. In the face of these fluctuations the country has a long way to go to achieve the goals laid out in this important document.

Guatemala's population is currently at around 13 million people, according to the national census. Guatemala is a multicultural country: 23 Mayan ethnic groups, "ladinos" (a mix of Mayan and Spaniards), and minor groups, which are mainly the Xinca and the Gar?funa. The Mayan population is around 60% of this number. They are settled mainly in the western highlands and in central Guatemala. Rural areas of Guatemala are a stark contrast to the urban centers. Most remote rural villages do not have paved roads, electricity or running water, and education is hard to access. The intensive use of the land in rural areas reflects the fact that agricultural production is still the main economic activity for the majority of the country's population. Some of the most prominent export products produced in Guatemala are: Cardamom, coffee, sugar cane, bananas, flowers and non-traditional goods like macadamia nuts and typical textiles and souvenirs. A significant amount of Guatemala's economy relies on tourism as the country's wildly diverse attractions, both natural and cultural, provide a wealth of attractions for visitors to the country.
One of the traditions in Guatemala which has endured centuries is that of the local markets. Markets are both trading centers and gathering sites and are generally operational only a couple of days each week, when people from a whole region will come to a town center to offer their wares and purchase basic necessity goods for their families. At the major markets one can observe local products and typical clothes from different areas and ethnic groups being bought and sold, since people from numerous small towns gather in the main markets at the same time.

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Copyright 2001 The Johns Hopkins University Press. All rights reserved.
SAIS Review 21.1 (2001) 147-158
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Approaching Humanitarian Intervention Strategically: The Case of Somalia

John G. Fox

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In Carl von Clausewitz's classic treatment of strategy, On War, he makes clear that war is never an autonomous activity, that it finds meaning only as an instrument for reaching political goals--hence his famous dictum "war is the continuation of politics by other means." In an age of frequent calls for humanitarian military interventions, it is clear from the case study of Somalia that Clausewitz's insight holds true for humanitarian crises that are caused by war as well. Such crises, unlike those caused by natural disasters, cannot be isolated from the prevailing political-military situation. Intervening militarily in such a crisis with "purely humanitarian" goals can be perilous in that such goals frequently cannot be reached without altering the political conditions that caused the crisis.

In 1992, when the United States decided to intervene militarily in Somalia, U.S. decision-makers faced such a crisis. The goal of Operation Restore Hope was to put an end to famine in Somalia, but that famine was largely the result of fighting among various clan-based militias. Decision-makers should have realized from the outset that in order to end the starvation it would be necessary to strike a blow to the power of the warlords and their militias as well as to aid the development of some sort of civilian political structures that would encourage an alternative to the politics of the gun. In short, U.S. military action should have been dictated by a definitive set of political goals. [End Page 147]

Once the strategic goals of the operation had been specified in political terms--the establishment of stability that warlords no longer could threaten--operations and tactics consistent with the overall goals could have been formulated. A realistic assessment of the resources and time required to reach the operation's aims could have been made. Armed with this assessment, decision-makers could have decided whether they still wished to go ahead with the mission.

Decision-makers instead viewed the crisis in Somalia as purely humanitarian in nature. This was a fundamental strategic error caused by their backgrounds and by the process through which the decision to intervene in Somalia was made within the U.S. government, especially within the U.S. military. Strategic misjudgment led in turn to a series of operational decisions that, while understandable from a purely military or purely humanitarian point of view, aggravated rather than improved the political situation in Somalia. When military intervention ultimately faltered, it left behind both a series of questionable "lessons" and a paralysis within the Clinton administration when faced with later decisions on humanitarian intervention.

Background to the Intervention
In January 1991, the U.S. embassy in Mogadishu found itself in the line of fire between Somali President Siad Barre's troops and armed opponents. 1 As fighting increased, U.S. Marines and Navy SEALS evacuated the embassy staff and a large number of foreigners. Following their overthrow the president, rebel factions fell to sporadic, sometimes heavy, internecine fighting. Having narrowly avoided a loss of American lives during the evacuation of the Mogadishu embassy, the U.S. government was not inclined to risk them anew through an on-the-ground presence in such an anarchic environment. For the next eighteen months, the U.S. government "covered" Somalia by means of a Nairobi-based Foreign Service Officer, a so-called "Somalia watcher," and one U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) contractor. I was the Somalia watcher.

In the summer of 1992, a famine, caused in part by continued fighting and lawlessness, sharply worsened in southern Somalia. News of the deteriorating conditions reached Washington through diplomatic reporting from the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, through reports by non-governmental agencies active in Somalia, and [End Page 148] increasingly by newspaper and television journalists reporting from the south of the country. Senators Paul Simon (D-IL) and Nancy Kassenbaum (R-KS) visited the country, reported their observations, and urged U.S. action. In August 1992, President Bush, reacting to the worsening famine, ordered the U.S. military to mount an airlift of food and medicines into Somalia from Kenya. By late fall, there were persistent reports that, despite the U.S. effort, warlords were pillaging the bulk of the food aid. Many voices in Congress, the mass media, and non-governmental organizations urged deeper U.S. action to end the famine. 2

The Decision to Intervene
In parallel with the growing concern regarding the situation in Somalia, key U.S. government agencies were rethinking the problem and slowly coming to the conclusion that a larger and more forceful U.S. military intervention was both feasible and desirable. 3 President Bush asked his staff to outline policy choices on Somalia, making it obvious to the various bureaucracies that the issue had top-level attention. Furthermore, a telegram to Washington from the U.S. mission to the United Nations emphasized the need to increase UN credibility in peacekeeping. The telegram was consistent with Bush's views and had obvious application to the case of Somalia. Consequently, it increased pressure on the Deputies' Committee, an interagency body composed of the second-ranking officials of relevant agencies, such as the Department of State, Department of Defense, and CIA, to be more aggressive in its approach to the crisis.

In a November 25 meeting, the Deputies' Committee presented President Bush with three policy options: 1) provision of U.S. air-power and sea-power in support of a strengthened UN force; 2) limited U.S. military intervention as a prelude to an expanded UN force; and 3) insertion of a U.S. division, plus allies, under UN auspices. To the surprise of the committee, which had formed a consensus around the second option, Bush selected the third, most aggressive approach. The president's decision soon became even more forceful when General Joseph Hoar, the ommander-in-Chief of the U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM), concluded that the intervention would require two divisions rather than one. Despite the choice of option three, President Bush described the impending U.S. intervention as "purely humanitarian." The mission of the coalition forces, he said, was "to create a secure environment in the hardest-hit [End Page 149] parts of Somalia so that food can move from ships overland to the people in the countryside...devastated by starvation." 4

In evaluating the process of making the decision, several points deserve emphasis in regard to future lessons to learn. It appears as if President Bush drove the decision himself and that his primary motivation was compassion for starving Somalis. In particular, a July 10 message from the U.S. ambassador to Kenya, Smith Hempstone, entitled "A Day in Hell" that described horrific conditions in a crowded refugee camp on the Kenya-Somalia border appears to have been an important spur to his decision to undertake the August airlift. 5 Bush was also eager to strengthen the UN's peacekeeping credibility. There is no indication that Bush saw more conventional U.S. interests at stake in the Somalia crisis. Perhaps most importantly, it seems as if Bush approached the crisis as being "purely humanitarian" rather than considering it on a political plane.

Second, the interagency process as well as outside actors served as a mechanism for airing a wide variety of views and for formulating options for the president to choose from. The Deputies' Committee discussed Somalia in numerous meetings throughout the summer and fall. All relevant foreign affairs agencies were represented in those meetings and had ample opportunity to express their views. Moreover, non-governmental actors, specifically relief organizations, proved influential in the decision-making process. Although not formally a part of the process, their well-informed lobbying played a role in persuading the U.S. government to act. Moreover, shortly before the president announced the beginning of Operation Restore Hope, a delegation of U.S. non-governmental agency representatives was invited to CENTCOM Headquarters in Tampa and asked to comment on the operational plan. According to Ambassador Robert Oakley, President Bush's special envoy to Somalia during Operation Restore Hope, their suggestions proved useful in identifying the most urgent humanitarian needs and in planning logistical approaches. 6

In sum, the process of creating Operation Restore Hope incorporated a wide spectrum of views, including those of the military, of governmental and non-governmental relief officials, and [End Page 150] officials from the Department of State and Department of Defense, both foreign policy and strategy experts. Nevertheless, despite the wide variety of voices influencing the decision-making process, the plan was essentially a military one; CENTCOM drafted the operational plan that President Bush ultimately adopted. It was a plan dominated by practical military concerns, with little consideration given to political or strategic matters.

Moving Ahead in a Political Vacuum
In retrospect, the most interesting and consequential aspect of President Bush's decision to intervene in Somalia lay in the failure to establish realistic political objectives for the mission. Bush viewed the mission as purely humanitarian in nature and believed that a follow-on operation, led by the UN with substantial U.S. military participation, would take responsibility for the political tasks of national reconciliation. The U.S. operation's stated goal, to create a sufficiently secure environment to allow food aid to be distributed successfully, was vague and led to bickering between the United States and the UN concerning whether the situation was sufficiently secure to allow the United States to hand-over the operation to the UN. In other words, the lack of clear and meaningful strategic goals for the operation meant that the United States would hand over to the UN an essentially unchanged political situation. Moreover, the conditions to prevail at the time of the hand-over would be poorly defined. A small but experienced diplomatic staff, headed by Ambassador Oakley, lacked a clear political mandate and was largely created to assist the U.S. military in dealing with the warlords. 7

The absence of political goals is remarkable for several reasons. First, the "Powell doctrine" of then Chariman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Colin Powell, stresses the importance of clear aims, including political goals, for any military operation. Second, as previously noted, the decision-making process leading to Operation Restore Hope incorporated State Department and civilian Defense Department officials who might be expected to view military interventions in political terms. Finally, it was widely, if vaguely, understood at the time of the decision that it would be difficult for a purely humanitarian operation to succeed in the man-made chaos prevailing in Somalia.

Op-ed writers with no specialized knowledge of Somalia and Americans sending letters to the editors of home-town newspapers [End Page 151] voiced essentially the same worry: what good will it do to feed Somalis for a few weeks or months, then leave them prey to the same warlords as before? In his memoirs, General Powell acknowledges that he and National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft had similar concerns: "The famine had been provoked not by the whims of nature but by internal feuding. How were we to get out of Somalia without turning the country back to the same warlords whose rivalries had produced the famine in the first place?" 8 Powell did not respond to his own question, but the implied answer was to use the military intervention to alter the political-military situation in Somalia enough to leave minimum stability behind after U.S. forces left. In other words, it was necessary to approach the intervention in a strategic, Clausewitzian manner.

Why did the United States not pursue this approach? First, as noted above, the administration intended to leave political questions to the subsequent UN operation, a hope that seems wildly optimistic in retrospect. This illusion may have encouraged decision-makers simply to "assign" tasks they did not wish to undertake themselves to the future UN operation.

Second, CENTCOM developed the operational plan for Operation Restore Hope based on military feasibility, without serious attention to political considerations. For example, CENTCOM rejected the proposal of independent relief expert Fred Cuny to bypass Mogadishu port and deliver aid to outlying regions, partly in order to weaken the Mogadishu warlords. Diplomatic reporting from the embassy in Nairobi had also repeatedly supported a regional political strategy and a de-emphasis of Mogadishu in the U.S. approach to Somalia, although not in the context of a U.S. military intervention. From a strictly military and logistical point of view, however, centering operations on Mogadishu, with its airport and seaport, made sense.

Third, another influential participant in the Somalia decision, the USAID, argued that U.S. relief operations in Somalia should be free of political considerations. For example, Andrew Natsios, USAID assistant administrator and the president's special coordinator for Somalia relief, rebuffed a proposal that the relatively calm northeastern area of Somalia should be provided food aid in order to increase its stability. Natsios argued that this would amount to using food aid for political purposes. 9

However, CENTCOM and USAID were not the only actors who failed to set political goals for the Somalia intervention. There is no [End Page 152] indication in the published record that any agency, including the State Department, urged a more political approach. Oakley provides an explanation for the inattention to the political realities of Somalia by the great haste in which Operation Restore Hope was conceived. 10 He points out that the operation was put together in the ten days between the president's decision and the arrival of the first troops in Mogadishu, although, as noted above, contingency planning had begun earlier. CENTCOM's plan, Oakley says, was relatively brief and it left many details to be worked out on the ground. Agencies had little time to reflect on it and, perhaps, to question it.

Oakley also notes that only a few weeks remained in the Bush administration when the operation began. Bush therefore hesitated to commit the country to the sort of longer-term operation that a more politically oriented plan would have necessitated. According to Oakley, Bush was even more reluctant to make a longer-term commitment because he could not consult with Congress, which had just been elected and would not assemble until after Bush had left office.

Furthermore, Oakley argues that his own professional experience and that of other key figures influenced their views of how Operation Restore Hope should function. For example, he and Lieutenant General Robert Johnston, the commander of U.S. troops in Somalia, had both served in Lebanon, and were thus well aware of the damage that could be inflicted by poorly organized militias with primitive weapons. Oakley states also that his experience in Vietnam and that of Johnston's deputy, (then) Brigadier General Anthony Zinni, led them to avoid engaging the United States in a civil war, a risk associated with a more active political approach. Oakley and Hirsh offer a clue as to why other agencies did not scrutinze the military's plan more closely when they describe a turning point in the decision to intervene. They report that, on November 21, 1992, General Powell's representative to the Deputies' Committee, Admiral David Jeremiah, "startled the group by saying 'if you think U.S. forces are needed, we can do the job.'" 11 Until that point, other agencies might well have feared that any plan of action might encounter strong resistance from the Joint Chiefs on using military force. One State Department official later remarked that "the military 'came forward' after deciding it was a workable mission," and "he was not inclined to question an initiative that surprised and delighted him." 12 Perhaps the representatives of other agencies reacted similarly to the Pentagon's unexpected offer and were likewise disinclined to [End Page 153] question the details or to press for a more politically-grounded approach.

Another possible explanation for the inattention to political issues, maintained in the face of widespread unease about the prospect of continuing instability in Somalia, is that Operation Restore Hope was a truly new departure for the United States. Although the inherently political nature of humanitarian operations was conceptually familiar to U.S. decision-makers due to foreign policy successes like the Marshall Plan, in practice they were simply not accustomed to thinking in these terms.

In sum, the failure to view the situation in Somalia strategically was not the fault of any one individual or organization. It was a failure by all those involved in the decision to act upon the noted reality that politics, not a lack of food, was at the heart of Somalia's misery. This failure was compounded and encouraged by a lack of time, by narrowly-focused thinking on the part of the military and USAID, by the personal experiences of key figures, and by the apparent failure of those who should have been most likely to view such an operation strategically--the State Department, the civilian side of the Pentagon, and General Powell--to do so.

The Price of Ignoring Politics
Not placing Operation Restore Hope into a framework of sensible political goals had important effects. First, the failure to establish a minimum of political stability made the "hand-over" to the subsequent UN-led operation more difficult than it might have been, and later led to recriminations over who was at fault for failing to stabilize the political situation.

Second, the reluctance to recognize the political nature of the Somalia situation later led to confusion about what the international community's goals in the country ought to be, and to criticism of the UN for expanding its operation to include ambitious political objectives: that is, for succumbing to "mission creep" aimed at "nation-building." 13 A more realistic understanding of the situation at the outset would have made clear that the U.S.-led operation itself had unrealistically narrow goals. This could have produced a common definition of which political objectives were appropriate for both the U.S.-led and UN-led operations.

Third, choosing Mogadishu as the main base of operations, a decision that made sense from both a military and a relief point of [End Page 154] view, made the capital more valuable, both politically and financially, to the contending Somali factions. The decision was, therefore, bound to increase competition and tension between the two principal Mogadishu warlords, Ali "Mahdi" Mohamed and Mohamed Farah "Aideed."

Finally, the decision to concentrate efforts on the warring south--understandable from a relief point of view, since the greatest famine was there--implied a relative neglect of the more peaceful northwestern and northeastern regions. These may have been more fruitful areas in which to begin to restore Somalia's stability. By directing almost all aid to the south, Operation Restore Hope gave northerners the impression that they were being "punished" for good behavior, while the south was being "rewarded" for bad behavior. 14

The initial strategic error of failing to establish realistic and meaningful political goals for Operation Restore Hope therefore led directly to a series of operational errors. These failures aggravated tensions between the United States and the UN, between the warlords, and between regions of Somalia.

Could it Have Turned out Differently?
The fundamental truth about Somalia in 1992 was that its disastrous condition, including but not limited to the well publicized famine, was due to a war caused by a number of clan-based militias. For the most part, the men who led these militias owed their standing in society and, increasingly, their wealth, to the war itself. Most Somali warlords, therefore, had no interest in peace and had an increasingly large stake in the continuation of the war. To put an end to Somalia's humanitarian catastrophe called for restoring some minimum level of political stability to the country and weakening the warlords. It was not necessary to restore a centralized Somalia state in order to accomplish this, but it was essential to attain a level of stability and security at which some politics other than that of the gun would be possible. Achieving this in a country as troubled and unfamiliar to Americans as Somalia would not amount to "nation-building," but it would be ambitious.

If from the beginning decision-makers had clearly understood that a rather challenging set of political goals was essential to the success of Operation Restore Hope, the structure and scope of the operation would have been much different. A much larger diplomatic [End Page 155] component would have been called for, including some of the military's civil-military affairs specialists. This might have necessitated calling up reserve officers. Disarming the warlords in order to weaken them and to allow other, more peaceful forces to emerge would have been considered seriously from the beginning. Importantly, the operation would have been viewed from the outset as likely to take considerable time, years rather than months.

In addition, the operation would probably have been more regional in nature, de-emphasizing Mogadishu in order to bypass and therefore weaken the warlords there. The operation would have paid more attention to the more peaceful regions of Somalia, such as the northwest and the northeast, on which the stability of the country might have been rebuilt, but which were less in need of emergency relief than the warring south. Among other things, this would have required a new political approach to the breakaway northwestern region, the "Somaliland Republic."

Faced with such an ambitious undertaking, President Bush might have decided not to intervene at all. Alternatively, he might have chosen one of the other options put to him by the Deputies' Committee, which placed more of the burden on the United Nations from the very beginning. In any case, there is no guarantee that any type of operation would have worked in Somalia, and I think it is unlikely that any would have. Who can say with confidence how to rebuild political stability from the ground up in a country as radically different from the United States as Somalia? The United States--or, for that matter, the UN--has very few experts on Somalia, and even fewer that could be marshaled into a long-term effort to restore stability to that country. The long-term effort that would have been required, even assuming we knew how to accomplish the task, simply lies beyond what the U.S. is willing to do. George Marshall's famous remark about the Second World War--that Americans are not willing to fight a Thirty Years' War--is true a fortiori for a humanitarian intervention in an area of no strategic consequence to the United States.

Looking to the Future
The U.S.-led military intervention in Somalia had profound consequences for how the United States would view later humanitarian operations overseas and the use of military force, in general. The ultimate failure of the international community's [End Page 156] intervention in Somalia, and especially the death of eighteen Army Rangers in Mogadishu in October 1993, not only forced the end of the operation, it caused the Clinton administration to be more cautious about future such interventions and less likely to risk U.S. casualties. Moreover, questionable or bogus lessons concerning "mission creep," "nation-building," and the effect of U.S. soldiers serving under foreign commanders were drawn from the experience, and came to color official U.S. thinking on military interventions. American reluctance to act during the genocide in Rwanda shortly after the end of the Somalia operation can be attributed in part to the traumatic experience there, as can the U.S. refusal to take decisive action in Bosnia until 1995.

There are, however, lessons that can be applied from the Somalia failure. The Clinton administration attempted to make constructive use of its experience in Somalia and in other overseas humanitarian operations. In May 1997, it issued Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 56, on "Complex Contingency Operations." This directive calls upon foreign affairs agencies to approach situations such as that of Somalia in 1992 in a systematic and strategic manner. PDD-56 mandates, among other things, that the activities of U.S. government agencies involved in a "complex contingency operation" be governed by a "political-military implementation plan," or "pol-mil plan." According to PDD-56, the pol-mil plan "will include a comprehensive situation assessment, mission statement, agency objectives and desired end-state." The pol-mil plan is intended to compel decision-makers to define the objectives of a complex contingency operation, to formulate a concept for achieving those objectives, to define the roles of various U.S. government agencies in the operation, and to identify the resources required to carry out the operation. In short, agencies must define a strategy for the operation.

PDD-56 is a significant step toward remedying the strategic errors made in conceiving Operation Restore Hope. As with any set of procedures, however, PDD-56 can only work if decision-makers embrace its spirit as well as its literal wording. PDD-56 will make a real contribution if its demand for a pol-mil plan is taken as a spur to think through a problem strategically. If, on the other hand, the [End Page 157] plan is treated as a burdensome requirement to be disposed of with minimum effort, as merely a bureaucratic "box to be checked," its potential will remain largely unrealized. After all, the real problem with Operation Restore Hope was that those who should have known better did not insist that the goals of the operation should be, not simply clear and achievable, but also realistically connected to a desired end-state. In the future, U.S. humanitarian operations should build on PDD-56 and adhere to the lessons learned in Somala. The most fundamental of which being that humanitarian operations need to be viewed in the strategic manner laid down almost 200 years ago by Carl von Clausewitz.






John G. Fox, a Foreign Service Officer, was involved extensively in the U.S. intervention in Somalia, serving as political advisor for the 1992 U.S. food airlift and for the opening phase of Operation Restore Hope. The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Department of State.

Notes
1. The events leading up to the decision for military intervention in Somalia are well treated in Clarke, Walter and John Hirsch, eds., Learning from Somalia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997) pp. 151-159.

2. For more on the media see, Strobel, Warren, "The CNN Effect," American Journalism Review (May 1996): pp. 33-37.

3. For details see, Menkhaus and Ortmayer, Key Decisions in the Somalia Intervention, Pew Case Studies in International Affairs, Case 464, Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1995.

4. "Bush Sends Forces to Help Somalia," Washington Post, December 5, 1992 p. A1.

5. Oberdorfer, Don, "The Path to Intervention," Washington Post, December 6, 1992, p. A1.

6. Oakley, Robert and John Hirsch, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Institute of Peace Press, 1995), p. 40.

7. Interview with Ambassador Robert Oakley, December 1999.

8. Powell, op cit, pp. 565-566.

9. Discussion with Natsios, fall 1992.

10. Interview with Ambassador Robert Oakley, December 1999.

11. Oakley and Hirsch, op cit, p. 43.

12. Oberdorfer, op cit.

13. "Mission creep" refers to a tendency for a well-defined mission to gradually take on additional responsibilities beyond those originally set for it. "Nation-building" is a less well defined term. In the case of Somalia, it seems to have been used by critics to mean tasks aimed at restoring Somalia as a functioning political entity, as opposed to purely humanitarian aims.

14. Author's discussion with northern political leaders, 1992-1993.







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