Fallacies the Choices That People Make Determine

Fallacies The choices that people make determine the shape of things to come. This observation holds true at the individual, organizational, national, and global level. Therefore, it is obvious that close attention needs to be paid to critical thinking ability or the way decisions are made. This inference can be drawn because critical thinking involves the formation of logical inferences, the development of cohesive and logical reasoning patterns, and careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, or suspend judgment.

Thus, learning critical thinking skills can help an individual to recognize propaganda, analyze unstated assumptions in arguments, realize when there is deliberate deception, consider the credibility of information sources, and think a problem or decision through in as objective a manner as possible (Halpern, cited Simon & Kaplan; Stahl & Stahl; Moore & Parker, 1996, p. 5-6). In other words, learning to recognize and avoid unsound reasoning techniques or logical fallacies is a vital step in the critical thinking process.

It is the objective of this paper to discuss the significance of three such logical fallacies to critical thinking: Appeal to Ignorance; Appeal to Authority; and Appeal to Popularity. The Appeal to Ignorance fallacy, also known as "argumentum ad ignorantiam," is committed when a lack of knowledge about something is used in order to assert the correctness of a conclusion. This fallacy can occur in two forms.

The positive version asserts that what has not been disproved must be true, while the negative version claims that what has not been proved cannot be true (Pirie). The important point to note about this particular logical fallacy is that the reasoning employed is fallacious as it appeals to ignorance by using a premise, which is not known and unverifiable (Halpern, 1996, p. 199).

Since critical thinking involves the careful examination of the validity of assumptions as well as the logic of the inferences drawn, the significance of the "argumentum ad ignorantiam" fallacy is self-evident. Indeed, accepting an argument that is based on as tenuous a platform as an appeal to ignorance runs the risk of leading to decisions, which are little more than shots in the dark.

A good example, here, would be consumers who make a decision to buy a product based on the claims of advertisements, which use a false cause-and-effect relationship. For instance, there are companies, which claim that wearing copper bracelets will bring about an improvement in arthritis, and dare medical researchers to prove that they don't. In fact, such companies persist in their claim in spite of researchers constantly stating that such an effect cannot be supported by scientific or medical evidence.

These promoters of copper bracelets justify their right to making such a claim simply because nobody has been able to disprove the positive effects of copper bracelets on arthritis (Taflinger, 1996). The Appeal to Authority or "argumentum ad verecundiam" is a fallacy that occurs when the authority used to support a premise in an argument is a wrong one. It is important to note that the fallacy committed is not in the appeal to authority per se, but in the appeal to someone who is not a credible authority (Halpern, 1996, p. 199).

Thus, the fallacy lies in the introduction of material, which has no real bearing on the matter under discussion: "The attempt to make our opinions yield before such spurious authority is trading on our respect for position and achievement, and trying to use this instead of argument and evidence." (Pirie) Much like the Appeal to Ignorance, this fallacy too is significant to critical thinking and decision making since it encourages the drawing of incorrect inferences by using irrelevant or shaky premises.

The Appeal to Authority, in fact, also seems to dominate the world of advertising. This is evident in a wide cross-section of products that are endorsed by film and sport celebrities who may or may not have any real expertise or knowledge about the product that they advertise (Pirie). A good case in point here is the Visa card campaign featuring Pierce Brosnan, which appeared throughout Asia.

As Danny Searle, creative director of Clemenger BBDO, the one behind the Visa campaign, observes, "It's all about status." (Rugged Elegance, 2004) Similarly, the Appeal to Popularity or "argumentum ad populum" also relies on appealing to popular opinion and attitudes instead of presenting material that is relevant to the issue (Pirie). However, this fallacy is more persuasive than the Appeal to Authority because it uses the tack that everyone supports a position or buys a certain product.

It is generally believed that such a message will result in the recipients adopting the belief or buying a product in order to feel a sense of belonging. Interestingly, the Appeal to Authority fallacy is seen as a variant of this fallacy especially when celebrity endorsements are used in the expectation that people will want to imitate the people they respect (Halpern, 1996, p. 194).

Since the Appeal to Popularity plays on the emotions of the multitude, it is evident that it is not based on sound logic and should, therefore, be avoided in critical thinking and decision making. This is particularly true of consumers who should learn to be more discerning about advertising campaigns that use this appeal. Just because Chevrolet claims that, the car is "the heartbeat of America" does not necessarily mean that it is.