Management practices across four periods of ancient civilizations

Management

History of Management of 4 periods in Ancient Civilization -- Literature Review

History of Management

History of Management of 4 periods in Ancient Civilization -- Literature Review

The History of Management of Mesopotamia

As many of the overviews and scholarly studies of the history of management note, understanding the history and origins of management and administration is an essential resource and background to the evolution of modern management. This view is concisely summarised in an article by Pindur et al. ( 1995)

One of the keys to successful management is the ability to understand and apply modern management principles and techniques effectively. Managers must develop an in-depth knowledge of past and present models, theories and processes in order to manage effectively and intelligently.

( Pindur, et al. 59)

This article provides a clear overview of the fundamental history of management in different contexts. It also refers to the fact that basic management techniques originated in the commercial system developed around 5000 BC, when Sumerian priests began to keep written records of business transactions. Pindur et al. ( 1995) refer to the finding that, "Basic management techniques have been traced to the city of Ur (Iraq) in 3000 BC where Sumerian priests were the first to keep written records as a means of recording business transactions. " (Pindur, et al. 60) Furthermore, as the literature points out in many studies, the importance of writing as a management tool is seen in the fact that priests and farmers were able to keep inventories of their livestock, products, grain yields, land ownership, and temple tithes. Priests had to give formal accounts to the chief priest of all the transactions and payments of which they were in control, in a form of temple management rather than for religious purposes.

This perspective is supported by many studies and articles. One study in this regard refers to the fact that, "As early as 3000 B.C., the Sumerians kept records on clay tablets; many of those records applied to the management practices of the priests in Ur." (KNOWLEDGE BANK - the History of Management para. 2) the point that is emphasized is that the early Babylonians enforced a strict system of management and administrative control, which included the codes of Akkadian and Hammurabi. An example given is that "Nebuchadnezzar & #8230;used color codes to control production on the Hanging Gardens, and these checks were performed every week and cumulated yearly." (KNOWLEDGE BANK - the History of Management para. 2)

A number of studied attest to the importance of the Code of Hammurabi in ancient management practices and development. King Hammurabi of Babylon is celebrated "…as a law-giver, whose code is the best known and most eloquent testimony of the legal thoughts of the people of the ancient Middle East." ( Van De Mieroop vii)

The Code of Hammurabi (eighteenth century BC) was the first important legal record of humans granting contracts, rights given to families and individuals, and primitive concepts of utilitarianism and the segregation of rights (Van De Mieroop 109). Hammurabi's law codified the underlying social structure, organisation, and managerial philosophy of Mesopotamia. Society was stratified into three distinct classes: nobles (government officials, priests, and warriors), freeman (merchants, artisans, professionals, wealthy farmers), and slaves. This code showed a commitment to justice, although the severity of criminal punishment was based on the class of the individual offended. The code regulated the duties of government officials. For instance, if a public official failed to catch a burglar, he was liable to replace the lost property. Builders were held responsible for their construction work. If the collapse of a house led to injury or death for its owner, the builder was executed. While certainly a patriarchal code determined by clearly segregated social classes (Kreis, para. 12), the Code of Hammurabi was important as the first known legal instrument used in social management with relevance for building.

As George states in the History of Management Thought (1972), the Mesopotamian code established controls by documenting business activities and employing witnesses to provide evidence of activities or verbal agreements. It demonstrated a commitment to order that was crucial for the advancement of an agrarian society. Further, it allowed the progression of commerce through written methods used by merchants and craftspeople. And as Saggs (1989 ) notes, without writing, even if done on a perishable medium, a stable commercial and agrarian economy would have been difficult to preserve. (Saggs 63)

The history of this era also provided insight into the development of early managerial praxis and accounting. The archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat has shown that an ancient accounting system developed by the Sumerians of Mesopotamia some 10,000 years ago was a precursor to many modern management practices. She states that "…both the first known writing system and the first known use of abstract numbers were direct outgrowths of that ancient token accounting system." As a result "This role of ancient accounting has thus been highlighted in many of the recent works examining the history of human cultures and the evolution of the modern human mind." (Mouck 97)

2. History of Management of Ancient Egypt

Pindur et al. (1995) note, "Translations from early Egyptian papyri, dating back to 1300 BC, recognized the importance of organization and administration in bureaucratic states." (Pindur et al. 60). Therefore, the system of management in ancient Egypt reached a high level of sophistication, which was also motivated by the vast kingdom and its growing administrative and economic demands.

As another study on this subject points out, the construction of the pyramids was an intense and complex endeavour which certainly required a strict and effective system of management and administration. "Construction of the pyramids, around 5000 B.C., was accomplished by about 100,000 men working for 20 years on only one of the larger structures." (KNOWLEDGE BANK - the History of Management para. 1)

An important fact is that the "…the principle of decentralized control was illustrated by the vesting of control in the individual states of Egypt (only later did the pharaoh establish central control over all)." (KNOWLEDGE BANK - the History of Management, para. 3) it is also important to note that many studies emphasize the fact that the ancient Egyptians made extensive use of long-range planning and staff advisers." Interpretations of early Egyptian papyri, extending as far back as 1300 B.C., indicate that the bureaucratic states of antiquity recognized the importance of organization and administration." (KNOWLEDGE BANK - the History of Management, para. 3)

A useful introduction to Egyptian civilization that provides a comprehensive section on administration and governmental management systems is Egypt: A Compendium by Platt and Hefny (1958). In this work the authors also emphasize the role that the various conquerors of Egypt - the Romans and Persians - played in the inculcation of an effective system of management. A good example would be the influence of the Romans.

The Romans took over the totalitarian system of the Ptolemies and made it more efficient. For example, they "introduced a regular census taken every fourteen years," in which the owner or occupier "of every house was required to make under oath a return of his house and all its occupants, of every age and condition, to a commission appointed for the purpose." (Platt, and Hefny 20)

The importance of management and administration in ancient Egypt is comprehensively summarized and explored in Wilkinson's work entitled Early Dynastic Egypt (1999). The central theme of this work explores various aspects of administration and management. The author emphasizes "…the supreme achievement of Egypt's early rulers in creating mechanisms of rule which were to survive, virtually unchanged, for the next three thousand years." (Wilkinson 113) These managerial mechanisms included economic as well as political and ideological aspects, which were all important in the exercise of authority and governance.

Wilkinson goes on to make an important connection between successful administrative and managerial principles and economic control, as well as political power. "The economy, then, emerges as the central concern of the Early Dynastic administration, for without adequate command of Egypt's economic resources, the state simply could not function."(Wilkinson 113) in this regard we can also refer to the importance of biennial cattle-count (?nwt) from the Second Dynasty onwards. This managerial and administrative emphasis on record keeping and stock taking, as Wilkinson states, had a direct impact on agricultural yields. (Wilkinson 114)

This useful study by Wilkinson also discusses the various aspects and segments of the administrative process and the way that these affected the various spheres of society. For example, the importance that writing played in the administrative and management process. All demonstrative officials would have been required to have a certain degree of literacy. (Wilkinson 115) in fact writing as a means of managerial and administrative control was "the key factor in the administration of Early Dynastic Egypt" (Shaw and Nicholson 15). Studies also refer to the importance of an accounting system in terms of large scale administration. This also required the use of literacy and written records.

The literature points out that were different areas of economic administration in ancient Egypt. This differentiation refers to the management and administration of the agricultural resources of the kingdom. This in turn involved an organized network of royal foundations. (Wilkinson 116) the second area of administrative concern was the processing of government revenue and "…its redistribution to the various state operations…" (Wilkinson 116) Wilkinson in his book also deals extensively with managements issues in relation to the Egyptian treasury. (Wilkinson 125)

In understanding the background to management in ancient Egypt one has to continually take into account the wide range of concerns and activities that required ordered control and administration. As Erman states in his work Life in Ancient Egypt (1894), "The enormous properties belonging to the temples required of course complicated machinery for their administration & #8230;certain members of the priestly college were deputed to manage the affairs of the treasury, the commissariat and the correspondence…" (Erman 303)

Taking into account the above discussion it is understandable that Ancient Egyptians encouraged the communication of information regarding the function of the government and religion, and the recording of information for posterity. The invention of written scripts with detailed hieroglyphics enabled them to record their stories and transactions. Ancient Egyptian government was based on a monarchical system of pharaohs (kings and queens), who made significant contributions to Egyptian society and many of whom were renowned for military leadership (Ruiz 177). As Ruiz also points out in his work on this subject; "It is at this time that hieroglyphic writing made its first appearance. As the people amalgamated, improved communication was needed to ensure a prosperous harvest for the growing population and the successful administration and development of the country." (Ruiz 10)

Morgen Witzel (2003) in his study Fifty Key Figures in Management provides some important information on this period in terms of management and the evolution of management techniques. In his book Witzel states that the Duties of the Vizier, the first known text that outlines a set out the goals of management and the tasks of the manager, was written over 3,500 years ago during the eighteenth dynasty of ancient Egypt (Witzel 3). Ruiz also emphasises the importance of the vizier in the process of management and administration in ancient Egypt.

The vizier, appointed by the pharaoh and recruited from within royal families, was the highest official and was referred to as the man to whom all was reported… the vizier or Chief Overseer, which the Egyptians called tjaty, answered to no one but the pharaoh, whose orders and decisions he carried out. (Ruiz 84)

The vizier was in close contact with the pharaoh as well as with other officials, such as the high priests and the army. He also was involved with matters of business and legal administration. (Ruiz 84) the vizier's responsibilities included"… the supervision of matters of justice, agriculture, irrigation, building projects and public works…" as well as "…finances, revenue, tax collection and civil order." (Ruiz 84)

The administrative complexity of Egypt can be seen by the fact that during the Second Dynasty, it was divided into various of administrative districts, known as sepat. (Ruiz 84) Each district had own treasury, administrative centre or capital, a hall of justice, an army, and temples dedicated to specific gods .

Priests were also among the most valued and revered leaders and administrators. Since religion was the cornerstone of society, the priesthood was an exclusive profession that garnered prestige from the people and the pharaohs. "Egypt was a theocratic state, partly controlled by the clergy." (Ruiz 84) They therefore formed an important part of the administration and management of the kingdom.