Human Motivation it Is Often

Human Motivation

It is often claimed that certain negative outcomes of frustrated need can be countered by social and institutional support. According to much research the outcomes of abject poverty can be varied for the better with increased social and institutional support. (Ellwood, 1988, p. 238) the textbook outlines two scenarios of frustrated human need for, poverty and a difficult life. (Franken, 2007, p. 227) in one scenario Peter (15), experiences the frustrated need associated with poverty and a difficult life and responds with appropriate hostile feelings. Yet, Peter has the advantage of the influence of caring and supportive parents. For this reason Peter's hostile feelings regarding the frustration of poverty are channeled into instrumental behaviors, self-control and involvement and conventional participant behavior which is in turn influenced by positive role models and positive community structure. Peter's experience in a hypothetical scenario would be something like this: Peter is hostile to completing class homework assignments because they seem incongruent with his social needs outside of school, his parents intervene quickly when Peter's favorite teacher expresses concern to them about Peter's late and missing assignments. In talking with Peter his parents learn about his hostility, and explain to him that the homework he is doing now and the grades he will earn because of it will possibly help him get scholarship funding to go to college in a few years. Peter and his parents meet with his favorite teacher. Together they work out a plan for Peter to get caught up in his work before the midterm grades are due to be recorded. Peter follows the plan by going to his local community center after school everyday and participating in an after school homework program, where other role models from the community help kids stay focused on academic success. Once Peter has completed his proposed homework contract he continues to go to the after school program for further help achieving success on his midterm tests and projects as well as those required for his final term of his Junior year. Peter is then poised to achieve success his Senior year and apply for several scholarships to attend college. Through the process, Peter's parents and mentors continue to support his achievements and he is able to successfully apply for several scholarships and is accepted to three colleges in the area one of which has offered him a full ride scholarship for his four-year degree. Conversely Samantha (16), one of Peter's classmates is frequently absent from class because she tends to stay awake nights listening to her parents argue about everything from money for bills to fear of eviction. Samantha's mother is often verbally abusive towards her but then demands that she fulfill many household obligations, which often stops her from completing homework, which her mother sees as and father see as a waste of time. Samantha is barely attending school and is working to help support the family. Her hostility is apparent at school when she attends and at work where she is in constant conflict with superiors. Samantha feels helpless and angry most of the time and finally just stops attending school and instead hangs out with other school dropouts anytime she is not at work. She avoids her home and moves in with her older boyfriend (18) to avoid the unrealistic expectations of her parents and school. During the final term of what would have been her Junior year she is caught taking alcohol and money from work for her boyfriend and her employer reports it to the police. (Morlan, 1958, p. 289) Samantha is then arrested and sent to juvenile hall. Samantha has no visitors and is not reenrolled in school because she adamantly expresses that she is old enough to drop out and that it is a waste of time. "Any sensible model of behavior emphasizes the role of opportunities along with values and motivation. Two people who have the same opportunities will make different choices because their background and abilities lead them to have different goals and expectations." (Ellwood, 1988, p. 197) Peter is informed by his parents and mentors that there is value in his positive actions while Samantha facing the same circumstances is given the impression that there is no value in academics or hard work and each responds accordingly.

2. Fear is a concrete emotion associated with the development of human motivation. It can create both positive and negative outcomes, often as a result of the desire to escape. If one is escaping a dangerous situation that could be thought of as a positive outcome of fear-based motivation and yet if fear is associated with avoidance behaviors in social situations then negative outcomes are also possible. Historically fear has been thought of as an instinct behavior associated with protecting the individual from harm or even ambiguity yet more recent motivation theory acknowledges that fear is much more complicated than simple instinct and that this is particularly true of social fear. (Dibartolo, Albano, Barlow & Heimberg, 1998, p. 213) (Mill, 1991, p. 67)

Fear can be grounded in experience, such as witnessing or perceiving imminent or past acts of violence or it can be grounded in lack of experience (often called anxiety) which can socially challenge the individual to remain inactive because they do not wish to be uncomfortable in a new situation, or they do not wish to face failure that could be associated with effort. (Weiner, 1980, p. 29) Fear, though is not always based in avoidance as often fear motivates the individual to positive outcomes based upon the desire to overcome fear and therefore succeed at a task that made one fearful. An example of such a case would be the experience of fear associated with exposing oneself to a new set of social contacts. It might be fearful to most to even think about going to a party where you do not know anyone but the person who invited you, or attending a community meeting in a community where you have never been active before, yet doing either or both of those things can be positive and fruitful, as one may then help to create a whole array of social contacts he or she never had before. The satisfaction one feels in having accomplished such a task is often supported by positive social interaction at the initial event and possibly at later events which unfold because of it. The individual might also feel satisfied that they were able to overcome fear, attend and event and possibly redirect his or her anxiety or fear to a common goal that did not necessarily seem to have a solution in the past, or in the case of a social event meet people who could potentially provide them with future contacts for employment, friendship or even a relationship. On the other hand fear of the dark, a persistent childhood fear can be extended to adulthood to some degree as one is exposed to images of crime on television or just general anxiety associated with not being able to see one's surroundings enough to respond if unlikely but perceived to be imminent threats occur. In the last example fear of the dark (a collective of anxiety about perceived risk of crime or the unknown) could culminate into an inability to attend events after dark, or even simply walk to the corner store to get a needed ingredient for dinner. In most areas, there is a high probability that nothing will happen but the fear (anxiety) elicits isolation. Another negative example would be fear of failure or rejection stopping an individual from speaking to someone they admire. The person may demonstrate no indication of rejecting the individual and would be cordial if spoken to but fear stops an individual from ever speaking and therefore reduces his or her opportunity for potential improved social acceptance.

3. Learning also has a significant role in human motivation. One can learn about history, culture or even a physical object that was previously unknown to them and then feel capable of interacting with it. Social learning is also key to human development and motivation as ungrounded fears can be waylaid and result in the ability of an individual to take risks that they would not have taken before or to learn new things about others that help them commiserate and therefore believe in their ability to face fears of rejection or the unknown. In many instances learning can seriously impact a reduction of stress, improved happiness and increase self-esteem. One of the most common ways to develop improvements in these areas is through self observation. Many individuals learn how to improve their overall development by observing their reactions and feelings with regard to stressful situation or situations of the unknown. They learn from their own actions and from observing others how to emulate resolution in stressful situations. (Dembo, 2000, p. 248) if one is learning a concrete task, such as how to rebuild a carburetor, even though they feel they are to young or that they are of the wrong gender to do so the task may be an isolated experience, or they may ask for help, observing another performing the task or simply asking for advice from someone who they perceive as an expert of the task or they might check out a book from the library that speaks to their particular perceived position in performing the task. The satisfaction of completing a task that is outside of one's perceived role or ability reduces stress, as in this case stress is associated with feelings of helplessness, and allows the individual to perceive of the ability to possibly do even more complicated tasks in the future. ("Women Becoming More Involved," 2000, p. 6) Things get more complicated if the learning needed is social. In this case one might learn by observing how others interact. We can mirror another's social behavior as an aspect of learning and therefore resolve social anxiety by doing. The result may be collaborative as it gives the individual a clue that they can achieve the social role expected of them even when they do not feel confident. Speaking with others about such perceived confidence may elicit a result of the other telling him or her that they were also initially afraid of the social situation, which helps the individual conceptualize that they are no longer isolated in their fears and therefore that they are capable of appearing confident even if they are not. (Metts & Manns, 1996, p. 361)

1. Instinct theories Pros universalizes humanity creating sense that risk-taking is an aspect of human instinct to meet a particular need, be it to eat (engaging in dangerous hunting or exposed gathering for food) or in a modern context to engage in risky work to obtain the pay needed to buy food. Cons, simplifies need to a list that is rather limited and basic, makes risk taking a desire to fulfill a concrete need even when in the modern world risk taking is often more abstract and fulfilling only abstract need that can rarely be attributed to concrete need. (Thomae, 1981, p. 263)

2. Need theory is most often associated with Maslow, who developed a hierarchy of needs including at its base physical needs and increasing to abstract needs the highest of which being self-actualization a culmination of many needs being met from lower to higher order. Pros: This theory demonstrates that there is an order to needs that is associated with risk taking, and that certain needs will be met with more risk taking than others and that one is unlikely to engage in risk taking for a higher order need if their lower order needs such as food, and shelter go unmet. Cons: This theory again does not account for risk taking behaviors that are not concretely associated with some need, if the need is unknown to the individual or is counterintuitive to development the risk, logically should not be taken and yet humans do frequently take risks that are not associated with human need, either high or low order and do not create self-actualization. (Fitzpatrick & Lagory, 2000, p. 43)

3. Learning theory is most often associated with Bandura, who developed one of the first concepts of social learning theory and specifically addressed risky environments and risk taking behaviors especially by adolescents. Pros: Social learning theory as it is associated with Bandura demonstrates a significant association with both positive and negative risk taking behaviors that are common to individuals. The value of risk taking for positive outcomes is expounded upon by Bandura as an aspect of human social learning that is essential to development of self and his or her place in society. (Rowe, 1994, p. 124) Cons: Social learning theory often attempted to explain risk taking behaviors as bad, associating risk with poor outcomes and especially cultural punishment, rather than as a positive motivation of learning. (Ketterlinus & Lamb, 1994, p. 205)

4. Humanistic theory is most often associated with Carl Rogers who postulated that human motivation can be adaptive or maladaptive with regard to risk taking and is an aspect of human centered motivation and social interaction. (Ashby, Rahotep & Martin, 2005, p. 55) Pros: Humanistic ideas regarding risk taking often place risk taking on a high plateau of reasonable responses to social situations that help influence the individual into a better social situation. Cons: humanistic theory makes risk taking and associated behavior a concrete black and white issue, if the risk elicits a bad outcome then it was a poorly developed plan while if it elicits human growth and progress it is motivationally positive. This concrete look at risk taking behavior is challenging as it makes action (and reaction) more important than cognition. (Ashby, Rahotep & Martin, 2005, p. 55)

5. Cognitive theory is most often associate with Piaget who postulates that humans develop in a step-by-step basis in a very predetermined manner conquering risk at each stage based on human development of the biological mind. Pros: Cognitive theory as it associates with risk is rather logical in that each stage of development is associated with a certain set of risks that are logical for the achievement of that cognitive goal. Cons: again the theory does not necessarily account for illogical steps in the stages of development or gaps in development when individual seems outwardly to be avoiding development through the avoidance of risk or learning or the inability of an individual to respond to risk choices given their particular level of cognitive development. (Flavell, 1963, p. 147)