Identifying Opportunities to Improve Managerial Skills

Developing optimally effective managerial skills can be a challenging enterprise in any industry, and it is axiomatic that it is essential to measure individual strengths and weaknesses in order to identify strengths to build on as well as opportunities for improvement. To this end, this paper provides a review of the relevant literature concerning effective management practices in general and how these practices can be leveraged to contribute to the creation of a high-performance organization. In addition, a self-assessed personal assessment of management skills questionnaire developed by Whetton and Cameron (2010) is used to translate the insights these results in order provide to determine what steps are needed to optimize management skills in the future. Finally, a summary of the research and important findings concerning effective managerial skills and the need for ongoing personal assessment of management skills are provided in the conclusion.

Because a growing body of evidence confirms the relationship between effective management practices and organizational performance, a number of researchers have sought to identify more generalized managerial skills that are regarded as critical for practitioners today. For example, based on his systematic review of the relevant literature, Schachter (2010) emphasizes that, "Not only do [managers] need to know [their] organization and the industry within which it operates, [they] have to be skilled at planning, organizing, supervising and leading staff through difficult times" (p. 33).

These so-called hard skills assume even greater relevance and importance during periods of adversity or downturns in the economy when these conditions can result in ineffective managerial practices and the loss of market share (Schachter, 2010). Although every manager's working environment is unique, researchers have identified three critical skill areas: communication, empowerment, and political acumen (Schachter, 2010). These three critical management skills are described further below.

Communication Skills. Communication skills are closely associated with virtually all other areas of professional and personal development as well as all types of managerial skills (Schachter, 2010). Described as a "soft skill" by Singh (2013), communication skills are as important as hard skills for managers today. In order to managers to be proficient at hard skills, they must first become proficient at communication (Schacter, 2010). Becoming proficient in this area, though, means more than simply sending and receiving messages, of course, and rather relates to developing and sustaining a positive attitudinal approach to communication. In this regard, Schachter emphasizes that, "This means managers must be aware of the need to communicate and be willing and able to share information with others who need it in a meaningful way" (p. 33).

Effective communication skills also reflect the ability to take the time to actually focus on what others are saying before formulating a response. For instance, according to Singh (2013), "It is important to think before reacting, listen actively, assure a fair process of problem solving, attack the problem rather than the person, accept responsibility and use direct communication" (p. 22). In addition, one of the most important communication skills needed by managers today is the ability to use a wide array of communication channels in order to ensure that all intended recipients not only receive the message but understand it as well (Schacter, 2010). This is an especially critical skill when there are large numbers of recipients are from diverse educational, experiential and cultural backgrounds who may understand communications in different ways, or even not at all (Schacter, 2010). Consequently, a concomitant of this skill is the ability to identify what communication strategies tend to work best with different groups and to determine how suboptimal strategies can be improved (Schachter, 2010

Empowering Others. Another managerial skills that is commonly described as critical in the management literature is the ability to empower others. In this regard, Schachter reports that, "Managers must empower staff to improve customer service and maintain a competitive edge" (2010, p. 34). Because empowerment begins with access to requisite information, managers must be proficient at determining what information is required in order for subordinates to make informed decisions and formulate problem-solving strategies and be accountable for them (Schachter, 2010).

Political Skills: Sometimes referred to as "people skills," managers need fine-tuned political skills in order to be effective in the workplace because they provide them with the ability to persuade and influence others to achieve the desired outcome as well as the ability to interpret otherwise-nuanced communications (Schacter, 2010). According to Moss and Barbuto (2010), "Interpersonal political skills include the ability to accurately assess social situations, communicate in a believable manner, network both inside and outside the organization, and use influence effectively" (p. 155).

Some managers, however, disdain the need for political skills because they regard them as being manipulative (Moss & Barbuto, 2010). An important point made by Schachter, though, is that, "Political skills do not mean manipulating others but rather facilitating personal and professional relationships and enable managers to see the big picture as well as the details" (2010, p. 34). When viewed from this perspective, it is apparent that political skills represent an essential part of a manager's critical skills repertoire.

In many ways, however, political skills may be the most difficult for many managers to develop because the analyses that are involved typically transcend the conventional practices to which they are accustomed, but these skills are also among the most important in order for managers to be truly effective. For example, one aspect of political skills is the ability to identify those within an organization that can provide the power base needed to effect meaningful change, even if these individuals lack the formal authority needed to approve such change (Schachter, 2010). In sum, finely tuned political skills not only facilitate more effective communications by helping managers gain a better understanding of the views of others, they can also help them formulate more effective strategies to overcoming resistance as well as gaining additional support and resources (Schachter, 2010).

Other experts agree that the foregoing critical skills form the foundation of effective management in the modern workplace, but add some other critical skills as well include the following:

• A high level of self-awareness;

• Knowledge of human motivation;

• The ability to allocate limited resources perceptively;

• A well-developed personal vision and the ability to sell it;

• A well-developed set of personal values;

• A commitment to community;

• Established knowledge and learning networks;

• The ability to effectively analyze and package complex information; and, • The ability to make decisions in conditions of extreme ambiguity (Powell, 2009, p. 28).

Taken together, it is clear that managers today require a comprehensive skills portfolio to compete effectively, communicate accurately and timely, and contribute in meaningful ways to the success of their organizations. As noted above, in order to evaluate any manager's skills set, it is first important to measure them. Therefore, in order to gain some fresh insights into the author's own managerial skills at present in order to identify strengths and weaknesses, an analysis of the author's profile of managerial skills using the personal assessment of management skills questionnaire is provided below.

The results of the administration of the personal assessment of management skills (PAMS) association version questionnaire are presented below.

Results of the Developing Self-Awareness Scale. The PAMS mean for self-disclosure and openness was slightly higher than for awareness of self (5.5 vs. 4.66, respectively). Moreover, the score of 3 on question 4, "I have a good sense of how I cope with situations that are ambiguous and uncertain," was significantly lower than the overall PAMS mean of 4.66 for this category. This is an important component of an overall management skills profile because truly effective managers must be able to respond appropriate even in times of ambiguity and uncertainty. For instance, Sambasivan (2012) emphasizes that, "Dealing with uncertainty is very important as a component of the management style or repertoire. The individual has to have greater tolerance to the ambiguity of uncertainty and yet be able to steer the business with success" (p. 57). Although the overall score for this PAMS scale was relatively strong, the low score in this particular area may warrant additional professional development attention in the future.

Results of the Managing Stress Scale. The means for the eliminating stressors and developing resiliency measures were slightly lower than for short-term coping (5.5 vs. 6, respectively). These relatively strong scores across the entire scale reflect a management strength since unmitigated stress can adversely affect managers' workplace performance as well their physical and psychosocial health (Robindra & Pradhan, 2014). This management strength has the potential to help offset, at least in part, the relatively low score on the uncertainty and ambiguity issue discussed above.

Results of the Creative Problem-Solving Scale. The results of the creative problem-solving scale show the mean for rational problem solving category was the highest at 6, the mean for the creative problem solving category was second highest at 5.6 while the mean for the fostering innovation and creative category was the lowest at 4.75. The lowest score was 3 for question 23, "I encourage informed rule-breaking in pursuit of creative solutions." This low score was attributable perhaps to the precise wording of the statement which suggests that the ends justify the means in some cases and support for the well-worn adage, "It's easier to seek forgiveness than it is permission."

Managers at all levels are faced with this type of dilemma on a regular basis. Seemingly arbitrary rules and policies prohibit the implementation of what managers may believe is precisely what their organizations need to survive and prosper, and breaking these arbitrary rules may appear to be justified. All managers, though, may not be privy to the rationale in support of existing rules, policies and processes and they run the risk of doing far more harm than good by intentionally violating them, even for otherwise well-intentioned purposes. Indeed, notwithstanding the otherwise-compelling need for creative solutions, even major organizations such as Google that place a high priority on creativity and innovative solutions have corporate rules in place that employees and managers must follow or risk losing their jobs or being disciplined. Therefore, the low score on this question likely reflects the author's belief that any rule-breaking is fundamentally violative of the trust extended to them by executive leadership and that there are optimal administrative approaches to any situation that do not require breaking the rules.

Results of the Supportive Communication Scale. The mean for the coaching and counseling and effective negative feedback categories were highest at 5.5 and 4, respectively, followed by the communicating supportively category with a mean of 3. The lowest outlier was a score of 1 for question 31, "I don't talk down to those who have less power or less information than I [sic]."

Here again, the low score on this question may be attributable, at least in part, to the semantics that are used to frame the statement. According to the definition provided by Merriam-Webster (2016), the term "talking down" simply connotes "speaking in a condescending or oversimplified fashion." If others have less information than me, then it is important to frame messages in terms they will understand by avoiding the use of project-specific jargon, acronyms and phrases which may be regarded as "oversimplified" but as Schachter (2010) emphasized above, it is essential to communicate in different ways with different audiences in order to ensure that the communication process is effective. Nevertheless, these relatively lower scores in this scale warrant additional professional development attention.

Results of the Power & Influence Scale. The scores on the power & influence scale were highest for the gaining power category with a mean of 6 followed closely by a mean of 5.6 for the exercising influence category. These relatively strong scores across the entire power & influence scale represent a management strength since they are reflective of the critical political skills needed by managers that are described above.

Results of the Motivation Scale. The mean for the motivation scale was 5. The score of 2 for question 46, "Only as a last resort do I attempt to reassign or release a poorly performing individual," and question 44, "I make sure the person gets timely feedback from those affected by task performance" with a score of 4 were the lowest for this scale. The former low score may be reflective of my reluctance to adversely affect anyone's livelihood, especially during periods of economic uncertainty and my firm belief that everyone's performance can be improved with appropriate support and training.

The latter second-lowest score may be attributable to the precise wording that was used in this question since corporate policy at most of the organizations that I have worked for in the past have largely precluded performance appraisals by anyone other than direct supervisors and stakeholders are encouraged to directly communicate with managers rather than with the employees who may have performed poorly. These policies were intended to prevent employees from being subjected to unwarranted criticisms or attacks by people within and without the organization.

Results of the Conflict Management Scale. The results of the conflict management scale showed that the highest mean was for the responding category with a score of 6, and medicating with a mean of 5.66 each. There was a low outlier of 4 for question 52, "I make a specific request, detailing a more acceptable option." The relatively high score on the conflict management scale represents a management strength while the second-highest score is reflective of the above-described emphasis on following established administrative protocols rather than trying to break the rules to achieve goals.

Results of the Empowerment & Delegation Scale. Although the mean for the empowering category was higher at 5.75, the mean for the delegating category was significantly lower at 4 with an outlier score of 1 for question 66, "I avoid upward delegation by asking people to recommend solutions, rather than merely asking for advice or answers, when a problem is encountered" (this was a tie for the lowest score for any of the questions). As noted above, empowering others is widely regarded as one of the three critical skills needed by managers today, and delegation represents an important component of this skill. Therefore, the low score on the delegation measure represents an area that warrants additional professional development attention.

In reality, though, the low score on question 66 can be regarded as a management strength since I try to avoid upward delegation in general because it can adversely affect the productivity of teams and it can diminish the accountability of managers for taking responsibility for their own actions (Sondak, 1991).

Results of the Teamwork Scale. The score of 6 for the team membership category was the highest, followed by a 5.75 for the teamwork category and a 5.5 for the leading teams category. The lowest score for this scale was in the teams category with a 4 for question 70, "I build a common base of agreement in the team before moving forward with task accomplishment."

Results of the Leading Positive Change Scale. Finally, the PAMS mean of for the lead positive change and mobilize others categories was 6 each, followed by foster positive deviance at 5; the score of 3 was lowest in the latter category for question 79, "I emphasize a higher purpose or meaning associated with the change I am leading." It is important to note, though, that this version of the PAMS questionnaire does not have a specific solution or any corresponding scoring data (Whetton & Cameron, 2011).

Although there will always be occupation-specific management skills that are needed, some of the most important management skills identified in a study by English and Manton (2007) using a survey of 43 human resource managers in a Midwestern American city include the following that were primarily communication-oriented (in descending order of importance):

1. Writing and speaking communication competencies;

2. Interpersonal and collaborative communication competencies;

3. Global communication competencies;

4. Integrity and appropriate confidentiality in communication;

5. Knowledge of and use of effective writing principles, including grammar, spelling, and punctuation; and,

6. Understanding business relationships and interacting in a positive manner (English & Manton, 2007, p. 411).

In addition, other critical management skills identified by these researchers involved other attributes including the following (in descending order of importance):

1. Understanding the importance of business relationships with superiors, coworkers, subordinates, customers, vendors, and other business associates;

2. Demonstrating appropriate social courtesy and etiquette;

3. Avoiding stereotyping people from other cultures, and understanding their norms and values;

4. Proficiency with research and data collection, analytical, and interpretation skills;

5. Understanding and exercising conflict resolution strategies and techniques;

6. Understanding how to use and interpret tabular and graphic data; and,

7. Understanding the importance of intercultural business practices and customs (English & Manton, 2007, p. 412).

Clearly, developing and maintaining this wide array of critical managerial skills will require ongoing attention as discussed below.

V. Specific Skill Area(s) That Require Attention

From a quantitative analysis perspective, the lowest scores on the PAMS provide a useful starting point for identifying specific skills areas that require attention as follows.

• The score of 1 for question 31, "I don't talk down to those who have less power or less information than I [sic]";

• The score of 1 for question 66, "I avoid upward delegation by asking people to recommend solutions, rather than merely asking for advice or answers, when a problem is encountered";

• The score of 2 for question 46, "Only as a last resort do I attempt to reassign or release a poorly performing individual";

• The score of 3 for question 4, "I have a good sense of how I cope with situations that are ambiguous and uncertain";

• The score was 3 for question 23, "I encourage informed rule-breaking in pursuit of creative solutions"; and, • The score of 3 for question 79, "I emphasize a higher purpose or meaning associated with the change I am leading."

From a qualitative perspective, some common themes that run through all of the foregoing lowest scores include the need to improve my delegation skills, learning how to empower subordinates to innovative, and developing better time management skills. In addition, developing effective supportive communications skills is also a priority.