Promoting performance culture to enhance sustainable productivity in Gambian SMEs

¶ … independence less than half a century ago, the Gambia stands at a vital crossroads in its brief history as a nation today. On the one hand, the Gambia enjoys the natural beauty, friendly people, low cost of living and geographic proximity to Europe to make it a desirable tourist destination, particularly for those who are interested in so-called eco-tourism. On the other hand, though, the Gambia lacks many of the natural resources that have helped similarly situated countries become economically viable in an increasingly globalized marketplace. Indeed, a majority of the nation's citizenry is still heavily dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, and literacy rates in the Gambia remain dismally low. In this environment, identifying opportunities for promoting a performance culture in Gambian organisations to improve organizational productivity represents a timely and valuable enterprise. To this end, this study provides a review of the relevant juried and scholarly literature together with the findings of a survey of Gambian business leaders to identify the most pressing priorities for developing the nation's infrastructure and sustainable organizational productivity. A synthesis of the study's findings is presented in tabular, graphic and narrative form to develop a list of priorities and recommendations for policymakers in the Gambia today. Based on the desperate needs of the Gambian people to develop sustainable organizational practices that will help their country better compete in the international marketplace, this study clearly represents a legitimate form of scholarship that directly relates to organisational behaviour as a field of study. This study demonstrates that it is possible to facilitate this integration by identifying what organizational productivity approaches work best in other countries and applying these best practices to the situation in Gambia in a culturally sensitive fashion.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

Purpose of Study

Importance of Study

Scope of Study

Rationale of Study

Overview of Study

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

Chapter 3: Methodology

Description of the Study Approach

Data-gathering Method and Database of Study

Chapter 4: Data Analysis

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

Promoting Performance Culture in Organisations: Enhancing Sustainable Organisational Productivity of Small- to Medium-Sized Enterprises in Gambia

Chapter 1: Introduction

Today, the Republic of the Gambia (hereinafter "The Gambia," or alternatively, "Gambia") is the smallest country on the African continent, and the country is almost entirely surrounded by Senegal along the River Gambia (see political map of the Gambia in Figure 1 in Chapter 2 below) (Gambia 2008). In fact, the only other African country that covers a smaller land area that the Gambia is the Seychelles, which consist of a group of islands off the eastern coast (Gambia 2008). The country's capital is the port city of Banjul, which is also the only seaport; however, Serrekunda is a transportation hub and commercial center as well as being the country's largest city (National Day of Gambia 2009). Notwithstanding its small geographic size, the Gambia is densely populated with approximately 1.7 million residents (Gambia 2008). The country achieved independence from the United Kingdom less than half a century ago in 1965; later, the Gambia established a federation with Senegal in 1982, a move that assisted in returning the country's first post-independence leader, Sir Dawda Jawara, to office following a successful coup in 1981 (Gambia 2008).

The goal of the Senegambia federation that was created in 1981 was to consolidate the two countries' military forces as well as to unify their economies and currencies; however, following a series of disappointments in achieving these goals, the federation was abolished by the Gambia in 1989 and relationships between the two countries have remained strained to some degree since that time (Gambia 2008). Although it was the most affluent country in Africa at the time of its independence, the Gambia has suffered from the effects of mismanagement and some well-intentioned but misguided developmental initiatives that have created a social and economic quagmire that will require bold action to resolve, a need that directly relates to the problem considered in this study which is discussed further below.

Statement of the Problem

Today, the Gambia stands at a crossroads in his economic development. Despite attempts at diversification, the Gambia's economy remains overwhelmingly dependent on the export of peanuts and their byproducts and the re-exporting of imported foreign goods to other African nations. About three quarters of the population is employed in agriculture (the Gambia 2009). The Gambia has no significant natural resources, and its small size poses a limit to agricultural activity. Agriculture is very unproductive, with 70% of the population employed in this sector even though it generates only about a third of the country's GDP (Gambia 2009). A statistical breakdown of economic sectors (2008) shows the following respective GDP contributions in Table 1 and Figure 1 below:

Table 1

Key Economic Sector Contributions to the Gambian GDP

Economic Sector

Percentage Contribution to GDP

Agriculture

33%

Services (Trading, Banking, Telecoms, Insurance, Tourism etc.)

58.7%

Industry

8.7%

Figure 1. Key Economic Sector Contributions to the Gambian GDP

Source: Based on tabular data in Gambia 2009

As can be seen in Table 1 and Figure 1 above, although agriculture occupies fully three-quarters of the country's workforce, it only accounts for a third of the contribution to the Gambian GDP. In the agricultural sector, the primary cash crop continues to be groundnuts, especially peanuts, representing approximately 7% of the Gambian GDP (Gambia 2009). Re-exports from the Gambia account for the most important form of economic activity currently, a legacy that remains from country's previous status as a regional shipping hub; however, the re-export sector has experienced downturns following the implementation of regulations that made inspections of shipments more difficult in 1999 and the when the country's currency, the dalasi (GMD), also experienced instability (Gambia 2009). The country's tourism sector has also experienced significant growth in recent years, but like much of the other economic development that has taken place in the country, these growth patterns do not reflect a truly accurate picture taken in isolation from the fact that this growth has been from a miniscule base; nevertheless, the Gambia is regarded as being a safer tourist destination than many other regions in West Africa, a factor that when combined with the country's more favorable climate and excellent Atlantic coast beaches indicates that the tourism sector will continue to grow in importance in the future (Gambia 2009). Indeed, in spite of a poorly developed infrastructure and minimal air connections, the Gambia's tourism industry has become one of the primary drivers of economic growth in recent years; although this sector experienced a downturn following the 1994 military coup, is has regained its importance together with construction and telecommunications (Gambia 2009). One aspect of the country's infrastructure that clearly needs more attention is value-added production, with manufacturing remaining largely of low value-added production (e.g., processing of groundnuts, fish and hide tanning); other crops such as rice, millet, sorghum, corn, and cassava are cultivated for subsistence purposes together with cattle, sheep, and goats and a modest fishing industry (Gambia 2009).

The main industrial activities in the Gambia are focused on the processing of agricultural products as well as a smattering of light manufacturing enterprises. Besides peanut products, dried and smoked fish, cotton lint, palm kernels, and hides and skins are exported; foodstuffs, manufactures, fuel, machinery, and transportation equipment are imported. India, Great Britain, China, and Senegal are the country's leading trading partners. The Gambia is one of the world's poorest nations and relies heavily on foreign aid (Gambia 2009). In addition, since the mid-1970s, significant numbers of Gambians have moved from the countryside to urban regions of the country, with the concomitant result being inordinately high urban unemployment and overburdened services in these areas (the Gambia 2009). A series of weather-related problems during the closing decades of the 20th century also resulted in significant decreases in agricultural production and an increase in inflation (the Gambia 2009).

Economic development in the Gambia will therefore require new ways of thinking and new structural business models that may be disruptive in the short-term but which are essential to ensuring the economic viability of the nation in the future. In this regard, the editors of Management Services (2007) emphasize that, "Economic growth is a state in which the amount of goods and services produced is increasing. Experience shows that the positive development of society depends on economic growth" ("Concepts Related to Productivity," 6). The future of the Gambian people, then, is directly related to what steps are taken today to develop sustainable productivity practices throughout all of the SMEs as well as the micro-enterprises that comprise the majority of the nation's private sector. Indeed, the editors at Management Services conclude that, "The dynamics of the economic process lead, through thriving enterprises, to the overall development of society and the economy; however, there is no automatic mechanism ensuring a balance between economic sectors and regions in the wake of structural change. One of the general tasks of economic policy is to try to avoid - or at least alleviate -the deleterious consequences of structural change" ("Concepts Related to Productivity," 6). Notwithstanding the challenges involved, the stakes are high and there is little room for false starts or experimentation; therefore, identifying a general set of best practices that Gambian organizations can follow in developing their own set of sustainable productivity practices represents a valuable and timely undertaking, which relates to the purpose of the study which is discussed further below.

Purpose of Study

The overall purpose of this study was to study to provide a review of the relevant juried and scholarly literature together with the findings of a survey of Gambian business leaders to generally identify the most pressing priorities for developing the nation's infrastructure and sustainable organizational productivity. The specific purpose of the study was to determine whether SMEs face the same types of challenges of to optimum performance as their larger corporate counterparts, and to identify any peculiar organizational characteristics that determine levels of performance between SMEs and large organizations based on the available literature and empirical observations from the field.

Importance of Study

An important part of developing and implementing sustainable organizational productivity initiatives is a sustainable development process. The World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), in its report "Our Common Future" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), defines sustainable development: "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts: (a) the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and (b) the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs" (quoted in Sustainable Business Development 2010). The profession of management is increasingly interested in sustainable development as today's organizations confront the realities of managing limited resources, many of which were previously regarded as being unlimited in scope. For example, sustainable development was the main topic of the national Organization Development Network's 2003 conference. Generally speaking, sustainable development takes into account three fundamental aspects of development, including sociological, ecological and economic Sustainable Business Development 2010.

A recent editorial in the Independent, an independent newspaper in Gambia, called for such a broad-based developmental approach to globalization that would allow the country to benefit from full engagement with the global economy while allowing communities to preserve their distinctive character (Keenan 2008). To achieve this level of sustainable development and the improved organizational productivity that accompanies it, the main challenge for the Gambia is to improve stability, consolidate its political system and continue with desperately needed reforms (Gambia 2009). At the time of its independence from the United Kingdom, the Gambia was one of the richest countries in Africa; however, since that time and as noted above, the country has experienced a series of natural and manmade problems that have resulted in suboptimal economic management, problems that have simply been exacerbated by the country's limited natural resources (Gambia 2009). The country's GDP per capita was estimated by the IMF at just U.S.$410 in 2007, ranking it among the 20 poorest countries in the world (Gambia 2009). Although governance has improved with the return to civilian rule and the government has made commitments to privatize state-owned companies, a move which if well managed would help reduce corruption and stimulate the economy, the Gambian economy remains heavily dependent aid flows from overseas and it is now eligible for debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative (Gambia 2009).

Scope of Study

The scope of the literature review extended to the global marketplace in which the Gambia competes, but a specific focus on the Gambia was maintained throughout.

Rationale of Study

While time is of the essence and the needs are great, policymakers in the Gambia must proceed with some degree of caution. In what has been termed the "productivity paradox," Morrow (1999) cites the enormous amounts of resources that are routinely devoted to improving productivity but emphasizes that much of these resources are being wasted because of a lack of substantive results. According to Morrow, "The key to understanding, explaining, and perhaps one day attenuating the productivity paradox lies in examining the linkages that exist between productivity at the individual, group, and organizational levels of analysis" (194). Examining these linkages and identifying sustainable organizational productivity approaches for the Gambia, though, is complicated by the fact that much of the economic activity in the country takes place off of the official books. In many developing countries such as the Gambia, unofficial economic activity -- that conducted by unregistered firms or by registered firms but hidden from taxation -- accounts for between a third and a half of the total. This share declines sharply as the economy develops. Despite the sheer magnitude of unofficial activity, little is understood about its role in economic development, and in particular about how important "officializing" this hidden activity and the resources devoted to it might be for economic growth (La Porta & Shleifer 2009).

Because the vast majority of private sector companies operating in the Gambia today are classified as small- to medium-sized enterprises or the even tinier so-called "micro-enterprises," officializing the hidden economy activity could also provide the means for helping these organizations become more productive and therefore profitable through the identification of sustainable practices that can provide them with the competitive advantage they need. In this regard, Folson (2005) emphasizes that, "In Africa, we have people who understand our business terrain and know how to operate in Africa in order to make money. . . . Our strategy to stimulate investment is not on sound footing, and we need to correct this immediately. We are missing [an] opportunity, making a lot of people disillusioned, especially where there is hope and opportunity" (3). While traditional business practices that are tied to the unique culture and regional differences that exist in the Gambia will be challenging to replace with sustainable productivity approaches, the stakes are high and time is of the essence in helping these burgeoning organizations achieve their full potential as actively contributing members of the Gambian economy.

Overview of Study

This study used a five-chapter format to achieve the research purpose above-stated. Chapter one of the study was used to introduce the topics under consideration, provide a statement of the problem, the purpose and importance of the study, as well as its scope and rationale. Chapter two of the study provides a critical review of the relevant and peer-reviewed literature concerning sustainable productivity and business practices, as well as an overview of the Gambia and how these issues relates to its current situation. Chapter three of the study more fully describes the methodology used to achieve the above-stated research purpose, as well as providing a description of the study approach, the data-gathering method and the database of study consulted. Chapter four consists of an analysis of the data developed during the research process and chapter five presents the study's conclusions, a summary of the research and salient recommendations.

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

Sustainable Organizational Productivity in Small- to Medium-Sized Enterprises

Identifying and implementing sustainable organizational productivity initiatives is not a hit-and-miss proposition, but rather requires a ground-up analytical approach. In this regard, Morrow (1999) emphasizes that, "Changing a single aspect of an organization almost never results in a substantial change in organizational performance. Organizations are too complex, their performance too multidetermined, and their inertia too great for a single intervention at the individual level to have a substantial impact on organizational performance" (195). In other words, to the extent that managers want to improve organizational performance is the extent to which it will be necessary to change individual behaviors and attitudes, group norms and interactions, and organizational structures and strategies (Morrow 1999). These constraints apply to organizations of all sizes and types as well.

In the Age of Information, it is not surprising that one of the more popular approaches to improving organizational productivity is to implement information technology solutions. As Howell and Higgins (2000) emphasize, "The increased turbulence, complexity, and competitiveness of organizational environments have made the identification, evaluation, and adoption of technological innovations a critical determinant of organizational productivity, competition, and survival" (317). In the case of implementing information technology solutions to improve productivity, though, a system that is purchased may not be successfully implemented. Even if it is implemented, it may not increase individual productivity, and if it does increase individual productivity, it probably will not enhance organizational performance. Mechanisms that may explain these gaps include the fact that the positive effects of interventions may be limited and outweighed by unintended negative effects, that the gains in the outputs of some subsystems may be offset by increased costs in other subsystems, that changes that do not fit the culture will be ignored or absorbed as the system seeks to maintain a state of homeostasis, and that changes that work in one organization may not work in another (Morrow 1999). The type of corporate culture that is in place can also contribute to -- or diminish -- organizational productivity. In this regard, Zauderer (2002) reports that, "One of the highest accomplishments of an organization is to build a community where people feel included and welcomed, and work together with mutual respect to enhance individual and organizational productivity. This type of environment will be instrumental in attracting and retaining quality personnel" (37).

Sustainable organization productivity naturally also requires sustainable business development practices to support the organization. Some approaches that have been used for this purpose include arrangements involving a wide-ranging partnership between business, local councils, public sector and voluntary bodies (Gibbs 2002). Typical priorities for sustainable business development practices include:

1. Environmental management and promotion;

2. Optimizing resources;

3. Optimizing local production and purchasing; and,

4. Environmental innovation and sustainable development (Gibbs 2002, 118).

There are a number of obstacles, both internal and external, to the adoption of sustainable eco-friendly business practices; however, there are several key elements that can help overcome them as described in Table 2 below:

Table 2

Key Elements to Creating Sustainable Business Practices

Element

Description

Leadership

This is the single most important requirement for sustainable business development. To the extent that top management does not support it through words and action, change simply will not occur.

Foresight

Looking into the future and translating this into a vision of sustainable business development and the competencies and technologies needed to achieve it.

Culture

Individual employees make the difference between sustainable business practices being successful or not so there must be a culture that creates commitment and action by everyone in the organization.

Management tools

These include environmental management systems, environmental performance measures, and environmental accounting techniques that are used to provide the data and incentives to drive sustainable business practices within the organization.

Life cycle management

Understanding and improving the life cycle impact of products, particularly through eco-design.

Research and development

To ensure that tomorrow's environmental challenges are dealt with as well as today's -- sustainability means thinking in timescales of twenty or thirty years.

Production and operations

Most companies begin their sustainability actions in this area and much can be achieved through waste minimization and other initiatives.

Marketing

Consumers need environmentally improved products and services that are based on getting closer to customers to form a view of their real needs.

Procurement

Sustainable business practices encourage suppliers to improve their own environmental performance and minimize buying-in waste or pollution problems.

Aftersales service and disposal

Companies have a responsibility, and a business opportunity, to consider the environmental impacts created by use and disposal.

Source: Desimone & Popoff 2000, 134

While the importance of these key elements will vary from organization to organization depending on the industry in which it competes as well as its size, they are especially important for small- to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and so-called "micro-enterprises" that are struggling to maintain a competitive advantage in the face of skyrocketing energy prices, an ongoing economic downturn and an increasingly globalized marketplace. The European Commission on Enterprise and Industry defines a medium-sized enterprise as having fewer than 250 employees, a small enterprise as having fewer than 50 employees and a micro-enterprise as having fewer than 10 employees (SME definition 2010). Based on this definition, the vast majority of commercial businesses in the Gambia today are classified as SMEs or micro-enterprises, with more than 90% being SMEs and more than half (about 60%) being micro-enterprises (pers. knowl.). These estimates indicate that a set of best sustainable organizational productivity practices should be specifically tailored at organizations comprised of a small number of workers, a significant percentage of which are agricultural related. Although every organization is unique, some salient guidelines that were identified in the relevant literature include the following in Table 3 below. This presentation technique is congruent with the American Psychological Association's Publication Manual (5th ed.), which states, "Word tables present qualitative comparisons or descriptive information. For example, a word table can enable the reader to compare characteristics of studies in an article that reviews many studies, or it can present questions and responses from a survey or shown an outline of the elements of a theory. Word tables illustrate the discussion in the text" (p. 161).

Table 3

Summary of SME-Related Sustainable Organizational Productivity Guidance

Author/Date/Title/Publication

Key Findings

Comments

Williams, L. (2003). "Big Business Helps Small Businesses Work with Technology." International Trade Forum 3: 16.

Groups bringing together governments, civil society and, significantly, the private sector - each with complementary strengths - can help. These include structures like the Group of 8's Digital Opportunity Task Force (DOT Force), the UN's ICT Task Force and the World Economic Forum's Global Digital Divide Initiative.

The international private sector represents a pool of as yet untapped resources and expertise - including a private sector ethos for development, based on sustainable business growth.

The sector's increasing acceptance of its role as a responsible member of society and its realization of the benefits of building new markets in developing countries is pushing big business to take a stronger and, in some cases, a leading role.

Bowles, S., Gordon, D.M. & Weisskopf, T.E. 2000. After the Waste Land: A Democratic Economics for the Year 2000. Armonk, NY M.E. Sharpe, p. 206.

Sustainable productivity growth includes increases in hourly output taking into account not only the paid inputs used in the production process but all of the inputs required including the natural environment.

An economy experiencing a boom in sustainable productivity growth would have little difficulty reducing and eventually eliminating its domestic and international deficits alike

Arnkil, R. 2008. "In Search of Missing Links in Disseminating Good Practice - Experiences of a Work Reform Programme in Finland." International Journal of Action Research 4(1/2): 39-41.

Sustainable productivity growth in organisations requires the simultaneous enhancement of productivity and the quality of working life. Qualitatively sustainable productivity growth wants to strike a sustainable and long-term balance between the innovation, competitiveness and productivity goals and achievements and the personnel well-being, competence and cooperation development goals and achievements at the workplaces.

From a development program perspective, success here hinges on the development of a rich and balanced innovation environment of workplaces. In emerging economies, productivity development is increasingly dependent on cooperation and teamworking. Advance in any working community can only be achieved by the willing involvement of all concerned, pulling together towards mutually accepted ends.

"The international importance of Swedish research on work, organization and ICT - for the development of competitiveness and societal welfare." (2006). International Journal of Action Research, 2(3): 378-379.

In order to establish sustainable competitiveness in an era of knowledge-based economies, research on technology, work organization, and innovation are key ingredients.

Work-life research is central to building sustainable productivity growth and employee well-being.

Guruswamy, L.D. & J.A. McNeely. (1998). Protection of Global Biodiversity: Converging Strategies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 22.

Sustainable productivity is essentially biological productivity. Plants and other organisms are natural biochemical factories, and can provide many products of importance for human welfare. More than 60% of the world's people depend directly on plants for their medicines; for example, over 5,000 species are used in China and 1,300 in northwestern Amazonia.

In the global drug markets that supply the needs of the remaining people, some 119 drugs in international commerce are derived directly from plants, and the great majority of Western medicines owe their existence to research on the natural products that organisms produce

"Concepts Related to Productivity." (2007). Management Services 51(3): 6-7.

As innovation and customer value become more important factors for productivity in a globalised economy, an enterprise whose productivity strategy aims primarily or exclusively at cutting back on labor as an input may find itself less competitive. Recent research findings show that downsizing employees does not lead to long-term improvements in the quality of products or services, nor to sustainable productivity improvement. Partnership can take many forms, ranging from working agreements at the national and regional levels (with various pacts having been worked out by the 'social partners') down to the enterprise, plant and work-groups levels, with the growing importance of 'value chains'.

Innovation - as a reaction to competition - is the dynamic element of production and growth. Without innovation, further development by enterprises, the economy overall and society is stymied; without innovation there are also no really sustainable productivity developments. Innovation is driven by competition and is strengthened by creativity. Successful innovation is mostly market-driven, but successful technology-push innovation also depends on the market. Technology is one of the main contributing factors to productivity development; but on its own it does not make the enterprise or organization competitive

The key themes that emerged from the literature concerning sustainable productivity included the need for innovation, the establishment of partnerships with domestic and international companies that can help guide newcomers to the international marketplace and the need to take into account a number of quality-of-life factors that may have been overlooked in many developing nations in their rush to modernize their infrastructures. These are especially relevant points for the Gambia, whose current situation is discussed further below.

Overview of the Gambia

Like many of the other countries of Africa, the Gambia has experienced the impact of European colonialization, having become a British colony in the 1800s. During World War II, military forces from the Gambia fought alongside Allies forces in Burma and the nation's capital, Banjul, provided an air stop for the U.S. Army Air Corps and a port of call for Allied naval convoys (National Day of Gambia 2009). Following the end of World War II, there was a push for speedier constitutional reform and after the completion of general elections in 1962, full internal self-government was granted to the country in 1963 (National Day of Gambia 2009). The Gambia became fully independent from the UK in 1965 (the Gambia 2010). Although the vast majority of the Gambian people are Muslim, the country also has Christians and others that subscribe to traditional African religions (National Day of Gambia 2009). While English remains the country's official language, each ethnic group has its own language (National Day of Gambia 2009). As noted in the introductory chapter, the Gambia is surrounded almost entirely by Senegal; it is not surprising then, that the federation of Senegambia was deemed appropriate but the arrangement only lasted during the period 1982 through 1989 (the Gambia 2010). Although the two countries signed a friendship and cooperation treaty in 1991, the relationship between the Gambia and Senegal remain relatively tense (the Gambia 2010).

The country has also experienced its fair share of political turmoil. For instance, in 1994, a military coup headed by Yahya a.J.J. Jammeh successfully overthrew the president and subsequently banned all political activity (the Gambia 2010). In 1996, the country received a new constitution and presidential elections were held, which were followed by parliamentary elections in 1997, a process that completed a return to nominal civilian control the country (the Gambia 2010). The military coup leader, Jammeh, has been elected president in all subsequent elections including the one conducted most recently at the end of 2006 (the Gambia 2010). The Gambia's 2006 presidential election, though, was shown to be flawed by a number of electoral shenanigans that meant the electoral process and the outcome have been regarded as generally "not free and fair," despite the peaceful and orderly conduct exhibited by the electorate on Election Day in 1996, including the following:

1. Allowing foreigners and some military personnel to vote when their names could not be found either on the main voter registers or the counterfoils;

2. Threats by Jammeh, senior security officials, and governors in various parts of the country, especially in the provinces;

3. Insufficient public media coverage of the opposition throughout the electoral campaign period, and,

4. The abuse of incumbency (Saine 2008, 60).

The popular and prevailing view since 1996 is that Jammeh will remain in power unless and until the same series of events that propelled him into power to begin with are repeated; in other words, it will require a violent military overthrow of the current government. According to one analyst, "The likelihood of a successful counter-coup can be lessened only if Jammeh uses his limited 'mandate' and 'victory' to widen political participation, undertake genuine reconciliation, root out corruption, investigate mounting deaths, protect press freedom, and put the economy on a stable course. This is unlikely, as his victory speeches have already signaled continued repression of the press, opposition, and dissidents" (Saine 2008, 60). Although some semblance of normalcy has returned to the country, the harsh reality facing Gambians today is a well-entrenched political leader who is not expected to leave office willingly or anytime soon. For instance, according to this observer, "At the heart of Jammeh's 12-year presidency, we see a dangerous phenomenon: the centralization of power and its tendency to negate the trappings of democratic impulse and to reduce an entire population to brutish pliancy. Killings and disappearances have become commonplace" (Saine 2008, 60). For international investors looking for a sound and stable government, these issues represent a major hurdle that must be overcome if truly sustainable business practices are to be implemented that can contribute to increased productivity of the nation's enterprises. In this regard, Saine adds that, "The rules of law and press freedom exist merely on the fringes of our leaders' political imagination. That's why it is difficult to make sense of Jammeh's victory, however democratic it is. Thus, Jammeh's victory should be seen for what it is - calamitous, because it continues further dismantling of the ramparts of our national cohesion; and unhelpful, because it is yet another shovelful of earth to the graveyard of political rectitude" (2008, 60).

Further complicating developmental matters for the Gambia is the fact that it has few natural resource deposits and a limited agricultural base, and relies in part on important transfers of funds from expatriates abroad; in fact, approximately 75% of the Gambian population depends on the agricultural sector for its livelihood (the Gambia 2010). In this regard, peanuts remain the country's primary cash crop and these are grown heavily for export (National Day of Gambia 2009).

Although estimates vary according to the source, most experts place the percentage of the Gambia's population that is engaged in agriculture at around 75 to 80%. On the plus side, the Gambia's natural beauty and geographic proximity to Europe has made the country an increasingly popular destination for tourism in West Africa, if not foreign investment, a trend that has been encouraged in part by both public and private sector investments in eco-tourism and modern support facilities (the Gambia 2010). As also noted in the introductory chapter, the Gambia's re-export trade, a legacy of its colonial days, has diminished in importance as a major segment of economic activity but the country's banking sector has grown rapidly in the meantime (the Gambia 2010). Notwithstanding these positive trends, unemployment and underemployment rates remain high and economic progress will require sustained bilateral and multilateral aid, on responsible government economic management, and on continued technical assistance from multilateral and bilateral donors (the Gambia 2010). A current political map of the Gambia is provided in Figure 2 below showing its position relative to the surrounding country of Senegal.

Figure 2. Political Map of the Gambia

Source: The Gambia 2010

Wildlife and Ecotourism in the Gambia

Even fairly recently, wildlife and ecotourism in the Gambia were both considered to be relatively modest enterprises that would have a nominal impact on the country's economy; however, today, analysts are increasingly recognizing the enormous potential that ecotourism and wildlife tourism represent for sustainable development in this developing nations. In this regard, Smith (2003) notes that, "Although it was assumed previously that cultural tourism was small-scale and more sensitive to local environments and cultures, its increase has led to its impacts becoming as major as any other form of tourism" (42). Therefore, forms of tourism that originally attracted small numbers of tourists (e.g. ecotourism) have now become more and more mainstream. This might include jungle tours, hill trekking or wildlife tourism, all of which tend to involve contact with local or indigenous people, and often tribal groups (Smith 2003). Clearly, the economic effect of these types of tourism will undoubtedly be significant over the long-term (Smith 2003). Indeed, wildlife tourism is currently the leading foreign exchange earner in other African countries such as Kenya and Tanzania, accounting for fully 40% of Kenya's foreign exchange (Smith 2003). Despite of these enormous economic benefits to the tourism industry and the governments of Kenya and Tanzania, wildlife tourism has not always been properly managed and in some cases has created serious threats to the environment, wildlife and culture of the indigenous peoples involved, considerations that hold special significance for sustainable development in other countries such as the Gambia (Smith 2003). The situation is especially problematic because local tour operators in many African countries are entirely unregulated and few local people receive any direct local economic benefit from these enterprises (Smith 2003). As Smith emphasizes with Kenya's experiences, "The majority of rural Kenyans have failed to see any benefits deriving from tourism, especially as local communities tend to be relatively powerless" (2003, 60).

The profile of indigenous cultural tourists is changing rapidly. In the past, the market was composed largely of allocentric tourists; that is, adventurous or intrepid individuals seeking the unexplored and the untouched. Although many activities such as hilltribe, mountain or desert trekking are still dominated mainly by the independent backpacker market, other forms of indigenous tourism (e.g. cultural heritage, arts and crafts, and village tourism) are now starting to form part of mainstream tourism packages (Smith 2003). In fact, wildlife tourism on indigenous tribal lands in countries such as Kenya and Tanzania has almost become a mass tourism phenomenon. The ubiquitous cultural performances, displays, and arts and crafts markets also indicate the growing significance of indigenous culture for the tourism product. The environments in which these activities take place are clearly diverse, usually fragile and often remote (Smith 2003).

These same patterns can be seen in the Gambia as well. For instance, a recent report from Cullinan (2008) advises that:

A new breed of tourists in Gambia are here for its luxury spas, gourmet cuisine, chic eco-lodges and trips into the wild. My twin-cent re break started at Makasutu Cultural Forest ... saved from deforestation in 1992 by Br its James English and Lawrence Williams. Their luxury Mandina Lodges float on pontoons or, like mine, stand on stilts in the pretty Mandina Bolong river. Staying here is an ut terly peaceful experience - well, it is after the dawn chorus dies down. Days are spent listening to the birds, wandering in the forest and lounging by the pool. At night you dine under the stars. James and Lawrence have created a huge conservation area around Makasutu and are working with the Eden Project to help 14 local villages become sustainable and stop rural Gambians drifting into the beach-bumster life. (16)

Ecotourists are also provided with the opportunity to visit local schools and villages in the area, as well as being introduced to local chiefs and view current conservation works underway in the region. In this regard, Cullinan cites a recent experience: "You have to walk through the Gambia to know the Gambia. Our wildlife guide, as he showed us the fruit, trees and creatures of a forest that locals use like a supermarket and chemist in one. The Abuko Nature Reserve is the oldest wildlife park in Gambia, with exotic birds plus monkeys, crocodiles and an animal orphanage" (2008, 16). There have also been signs that investments in the infrastructure needed to support these ecotourism adventures have been made in ways that will contribute to sustainable development in the future. For instance, Cullinan notes that, "The newly tarmacked coast road from the capital Banjul to the southern border with Senegal, which makes getting around Gambia so much easier. Now you could start a day at the Kachikally Crocodile Pool and craft markets in Bakau in the north, have lunch in Fajara then carry on to Kartong, a new ecocentre in the unspoiled south whose villagers and hotels run their own Association for Responsible Tourism" (2008, 16). As noted above, the country's geographic proximity to Western Europe and favorable exchange rates have made it an increasingly popular destination. For example, Cullinan cites the cost of a week-long adventure: "The Gambia Experience (0845 330-2087, www.gambia.co.uk) offer seven nights at the Coconut Residence from pounds 899pp or twin-centre with Mandina Lodges from pounds 1,089. Both based on two sharing and include half-board, Gatwick flights, transfers and taxes. Other flights from Bristol, Manchester and East Midlands" (2008, 16).

The inexpensive qualities of the wildlife and ecotourism attractions in the Gambia and its easy access to Europe (notwithstanding the country's sole airport facilities) were also included in a more recent report from Powell (2009) who notes that, "Where else would you find two beaches, ten minutes apart -- one, crammed shoulder-to-shoulder with hundreds of local women haggling for ladyfish, so fresh it's still in the nets; while the other is deserted, studded with palm trees, and the only sign of life is a waiter hurrying down from the Coco Ocean with your pina colada" (62). For the adventure-minded European eco- or wildlife tourist, the Gambia represents a touch of the exotic almost at their doorstep. In this regard, Powell adds that, "The biggest contradiction, though, is the Gambia's proximity to Britain. This pea-sized country, sandwiched beside Senegal, might feel worlds away -- but it's only a six-hour flight. And during the coldest months of the British winter, humidity in the Gambia is minimal and sunshine almost constant" (2009, 62). Despite the attributes and advantages, much more needs to be done to encourage additional tourism in general and from Europe in particular. For example, Powell also points out that, "Unlike Egypt and Morocco, which pull in thousands of British tourists, visitors to the Gambia are still only a steady trickle. Perhaps it's because the Gambia's reputation is tarred: it's been wrongly labelled the 'Benidorm of Africa', and a stop-off shop where middle-aged desperados fly in search of a quick tan and a toy-boy" (Powell 2009, 62). Once again, signs that investments are being made where they are most needed are included in the report from Powell who cites the construction of world-class hotels in the capital, Banjul, as well as more remote locations such as the Mandina River Lodge developed by two Britons, James English and Lawrence Williams. According to Powell, though, there are still significant developmental constraints firmly in place across the country: "Meanwhile, the dust-track roads are snaked with carcasses of buildings that one day will be even more shops, restaurants and guest houses. Just don't ask 'when'. Because the moment you touch down in the Gambia, internet access becomes precarious, foreign newspapers are non-existent and forget about asking the time. Even the mosquitos are lethargic" (2009, 62).

Another Brit recently opted for the South Gambia Experience and reports that:

[the Gambian adventure] started with a drive weaving through local villages in an open-topped jeep, enjoying what can only be described as a rock stars' welcome from smiling children running alongside. Famarah, our guide, was clearly passionate and proud of his country as he took us on to the river boats. In hopes of spotting a crocodile or two I clambered aboard and thoroughly enjoyed the 40-minute journey up the Gambia river that divides the country from Senegal. We ate in a quaint restaurant bar just back from the riverbank where we were treated to a lunch of local dishes and fruit (all thoroughly enjoyable). And we were entertained by a band playing traditional African instruments. We were invited to get up and dance - but the old English reserve reared its ugly head. I couldn't muster the courage to dance to the beat of the Djembe drums in the African way. (Binns 2009, 12)

Based on her experiences in the Gambia, this British tourist emphasizes that she would recommend the Gambia as a holiday destination for everyone based on the country's weather, beaches and new hotel facilities. Moreover, the nation's citizenry appears to recognize the benefits that accrue to tourist destinations with a reputation for good service and Binn reports a favorable opinion of this aspect of her visit as well: "I came away with more than just a suntan and a few wooden elephants thanks to the fact there's so much to discover outside your hotel. There is a real sense that the local people want tourists to get as much out of their trips as possible. I got a sense of how they live, how they cope with poverty by good humour - and a sense that there is no rush to complete any task. This was an authentic travelling experience" (emphasis added) (Binns 2009, 12).

As noted above, one major tourism operator that has modeled the way for other like-minded entrepreneurs in the Gambia is the Gambia Experience. The promotional literature for this organization emphasizes the close geographic proximity to the U.K. And Western Europe: "Although the Gambia is in West Africa it is under 6 hours from UK and, surprisingly there is no time difference - you can be by the pool or in the sea on the same day as you fly and with no jet lag! The Gambia is an English speaking former British colony and an exciting holiday destination all year round" (the Gambia Experience 2010). The Gambia Experience was recently awarded the "Appointment to the Order of the Gambia" from the Gambian Government for its longstanding commitment to the country within tourism. In 2007, the organization was awarded the "Tour Operator of the Year" prize by the Travel Trade Gazette (TTG), one of the leading travel industry journals; moreover, the Gambia Experience operators are also holders of AITO 5 star Sustainable Tourism status, the highest level possible. Some of the other highlights of the company's promotional literature include:

1. They pride themselves on listening to their customers and taking their views into consideration when planning travel programs;

2. They have introduced summer charters, premium flight upgrades, regional departures flying from Bristol and East Midlands and new types of accommodation including lodges, villas and boutique properties; and,

3. They are the only year-round tour operator from the UK to the Gambia and during the main winter season they offer several exclusive properties and room types that cannot be found in other UK tour operators' brochures (About us 2010).

Pursuant to the Gambia Experience's commitment to sustainable development practices, the company emphasizes that it has been promoting these ethics and encouraging clients to follow suit for over 20 years, evidenced by the following Customers' Code of Conduct: "All tourism potentially has an environmental, social and economic impact so we ask you to help us negate any detrimental impact your holiday has on the environment. Please take the time to read the comprehensive information contained in our brochure and pre-departure information on the destination, preferably before you go" (Sustainable tourism 2010).

The leadership at the Gambia Experience has made a commitment to:

1. Protect the environment - its flora, fauna and landscapes;

2. Respect local cultures - traditions, religions and built heritage;

3. Benefit local communities - both economically and socially;

4. Conserve natural resources - from office to destination; and,

5. Minimise pollution - through noise, waste disposal and congestion (Sustainable tourism 2010)

The customers' code of conduct distributed by the Gambia Experience includes the following requests regarding sustainable tourism:

1. Respect the Environment. Act responsibly to protect the natural beauty and wildlife of our destinations for future generations to enjoy whilst living in or visiting the country, paying particular attention to local guidelines regarding the building of fires and barbecues.

2. Respect for Others. Please be aware of a country's religious beliefs and dress appropriately when you are away from the resort areas. Please always ask permission when taking photographs. Respect other guests and locals by keeping noise levels to a minimum at night.

3. Using Local Restaurants. Our destinations have an excellent selection of good quality restaurants. By eating in local restaurants you are ensuring your visit benefits the wider community.

4. Spend Your Money Wisely. Make sure your money benefits the local people by buying local products and services.

5. Preserve Energy. Save energy and the environment by turning off lights, air-conditioning and electrical items when not needed.

6. Preserve Water. Water is often taken for granted in the western world so it's important to avoid waste, especially in developing countries where water is extremely precious.

Please help preserve supplies by:

1. Only leaving dirty towels and laundry on the floor for washing.

2. Turn off dripping taps.

3. Using a basin of water with a plug rather than a running tap.

4. Having a shower instead of bathing in a full tub.

5. Reporting any leaks immediately.

Help the Schools. Primary school education is often free but in most third world countries parents have to provide pens, paper, books and even desks and chairs so the following things are always welcome:

1. Pens, pencils, chalk.

2. Unwanted children's clothes & shoes.

3. Children's toys.

Do Not Support Illegal Trading: When shopping please refrain from buying items made from ivory, reptile skin, fur or tortoise/turtle shell to ensure animals and plants are able to thrive in their natural environment.

End Child Sex Exploitation: This is a problem in many developing countries, so we ask you to report to your representative anything that you consider to be suspicious. All prostitution is illegal and paying anyone under 18 in cash or kind for sexual contact is punishable by both local (14 years imprisonment) and UK laws (Sustainable tourism 2010, 2-3).

In order to capitalize in this growing segment of the Gambian economy, a number of misperceptions concerning the country must be dispelled in the minds of potential eco- and wildlife tourists. In this regard, Weaver and Elliott (1999) note that Africa's status as the least economically developed major world region has adversely affected tourists' perceptions of the continent, including creating:

1. A negative public image in the market regions (a problem recently exacerbated by the AIDS epidemic);

2. Foreign exchange constraints which hinder the implementation of services and infrastructure necessary to sustain tourism;

3. A lack of skilled labor (which fosters a reliance on expatriate workers in critical technical and managerial positions);

4. Weak institutional frameworks for tourism planning; and,

5. Chronic political instability (Weaver & Elliott 1999).

Unfortunately, all of these constraints are applicable to some degree to the Gambia. Moreover, some parts of Gambia may lack of resources needed to help develop sustainable business practices. Some grassroots initiatives that have been used with good effect for providing electricity to remote regions of Gambia in the past, though, may provide a useful example for the provision of the power needs of rural Gambian eco- and wildlife tourism businesses that could benefit from information technology but lack the requisite infrastructural requirements. In this regard, Power Up Gambia is a nonprofit organization that was established by Kathryn Cunningham, a university student pursuing a medical degree who volunteered in a hospital in the Gambia in 2006; Cunningham was shocked by the fact that the hospital did not have electricity and returned to Pennsylvania determined to do something about it. In response, Cunningham founded Power Up Gambia, an organization with a commitment to provide solar panels to the hospital. The organization's board of directors began to explore opportunities to communicate the need to others and a program was created to solicit support from other students. As Cunningham puts it, "Our goal was to inspire children to make a difference, and to involve them personally in Power Up Gambia's mission," Patricia Connelly said of Power Up Gambia's education program, which she founded, creating a new model for the interaction between a nonprofit and a school" (quoted in Hanway & Zankowsky 2009 at 27). These types of alternative energy initiatives could also benefit remote tourism destinations, provided that the wherewithal and resources are available for the purpose.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Description of the Study Approach

The study approach used in this research proceeded in a step-wise fashion beginning with a review of the relevant literature and then moving to the steps shown in Table __ below preparatory to the development of a custom survey instrument that could be used to create a current snapshot of views from Gambian business leaders concerning sustainable organizational productivity. This step-wise approach is consistent with the guidance provided by Fraenkel and Wallen (2001) who advise, "Before planning the details of a study, researchers usually dig into the literature to find out what has already been written about the topic they are interested in investigating. Both the opinions of experts in the field and other research studies are of interest. Such reading is referred to as a review of the literature" (48). According to Gratton and Jones (2003), a critical review of the relevant literature is an essential task in almost all types of research today. "No matter how original you think the research question may be," Gratton and Jones note, "it is almost certain that your work will be building on the work of others. It is here that the review of such existing work is important. A literature review is the background to the research, where it is important to demonstrate a clear understanding of the relevant theories and concepts, the results of past research into the area, the types of methodologies and research designs employed in such research, and areas where the literature is deficient" (p. 51). A well-conducted literature review has several useful possible outcomes as well. In this regard, Wood and Ellis (2003) identified the following as important outcomes of a well conducted literature review:

1. It helps describe a topic of interest and refine either research questions or directions in which to look;

2. It presents a clear description and evaluation of the theories and concepts that have informed research into the topic of interest;

3. It clarifies the relationship to previous research and highlights where new research may contribute by identifying research possibilities which have been overlooked so far in the literature;

4. It provides insights into the topic of interest that are both methodological and substantive;

5. It demonstrates powers of critical analysis by, for instance, exposing taken for granted assumptions underpinning previous research and identifying the possibilities of replacing them with alternative assumptions;

6. It justifies any new research through a coherent critique of what has gone before and demonstrates why new research is both timely and important.

This step-wise approach is also congruent with Neuman (2003), who recommends the steps shown in Table 4 below for research survey development and administration.

Table 4

Steps to Research Survey Development and Administration.

Step

Description

Step No. 1

Develop hypotheses.

Decide on type of survey.

Write survey questions.

Decide on response categories.

Design layout.

Step No. 2

Plan how to record data.

Step No. 3

Decide on target population.

Get sampling frame.

Decide on sample size.

Select sample.

Step No. 4

Locate respondents.

Administer survey.

Carefully record data.

Step No. 5

Enter data into computers.

Recheck all data.

Perform statistical analysis on data.

Step No. 6

Describe methods and findings in research report.

Presenting findings to other for critique and evaluation.

Source: Neuman, 2003 at 268.

The survey at Appendix a was developed based on the preponderance of the factors identified in the literature review concerning sustainable business practices and organizational productivity in general and how these issues apply to the Gambia business setting in particular. The survey was designed following the steps provided by Proctor and Vu (2003) described in Table 5 below.

Table 5

Survey Design Principles

Design Principle

Description

Is the language simple?

Write the questions so they will be easily understood by the target users. For example, "use" instead of "utilize." This is the case for both language and sentence structure.

Is the question clear?

Avoid using words that are ambiguous. Also, it is important to ask only one question at a time. If the item contains "and" or "or," there is a good chance that the researcher has inadvertently asked more than one question.

Is it short?

Long sentences are more likely to contain complex phrases and sentence structure. Furthermore, long questions are sometimes difficult to follow and increase the workload on the respondent.

Is there any bias present in the question or the response choices?

Do not bias the users' potential response by using leading language in the question. Do not introduce the user to new facts, avoid mentioning one side of a semantic differential scale, and lead users through your choice of response categories.

Does the question have the right level of specificity?

Response choices should not be so general that the user cannot possibly determine the answer; however, they should be specific enough to be useful for the study.

Is the question objectionable?

Each item should be reviewed for the possibility of either inappropriate tone or content. This is of particular concern when a survey is cross-cultural where the questions, sentence structure, and language may be perfectly acceptable in one culture but offensive in others.

Source: Proctor & Vu 2003, 311.

Data-gathering Method and Database of Study

The data-gathering method and database of study used for the literature review component of the study involved the use of public and university libraries as well as governmental resources and reliable online research resources such as EBSCOHost and Questia. The data-gathering method and database of study used to recruit respondents for the custom survey involved placing invitations for participation in online forums targeted at Gambian business leaders such as Gambia Travel Forum at http://www.tripadvisor.co.uk/ShowForum-g293794-i9249-Gambia.html and the Gambian Forum at http://www.travelpod.com/forum-discussions/0/Gambia.html; emails were also sent to Gambian business leaders who were identifiable online with posted email addresses. The forum notices and email invitations contained a hyperlink to the online version of the survey which was posted on a survey service, SurveyMonkey.com, using a premium account specifically for this study. Although the survey service provides some statistical analysis functions, the statistical data developed from the administration of the online survey was analyzed using an Excel worksheet and SPSS Version 11.0 for Windows (Student Version) and the results presented in tabular and graphic form in the chapter below, followed by a summary of the survey findings and a synthesis of the research in the concluding chapter.

Chapter 4: Data Analysis

Part One: Developmental and Economic Indicators

Population:

1,824,158 (July 2010 est.)

country comparison to the world: 147

Age structure:

0-14 years: 43.4% (male 397,864/female 394,103)

15-64 years: 53.7% (male 486,140/female 493,868)

65 years and over: 2.9% (male 25,773/female 26,410) (2010 est.)

Median age:

total: 18 years male: 17.9 years female: 18.2 years (2010 est.)

Life expectancy at birth:

total population: 54.07 years country comparison to the world: 201

male: 52.32 years female: 55.86 years (2010 est.)

Literacy:

definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 40.1%

male: 47.8%

female: 32.8% (2003 est.)

School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):

total: 7 years male: 7 years female: 7 years (2004)

Education expenditures:

2% of GDP (2004)

country comparison to the world: 166

Analysts at Oxford Economic Forecasting report that for the Gambia:

1. Led by tourism, construction and agriculture, the economy is estimated to have grown by a healthy 6.1% last year. However, external pressures generated by the global financial crisis will bring a significant slowdown this year, although growth should stay positive. And the pick-up in 2010 is likely to be slow given the still weak level of global demand.