Denver's strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions through alternative transportation

Denver Climate Action Planning Project

Carbon dioxide emissions, the most common greenhouse gas, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports, increased by 20% from 1990 to 2005. One recent climate action report projects the projected 19% increase in emissions between 2000 and 2020 will contribute to an array of environmental crises not only in the U.S., but also in countries throughout the world. If business-as-usual continues, increases in greenhouse gas emissions could skyrocket in places like Denver, Colorado, the city for the focus in this Capstone.

A current primary goal of the City and County of Denver, noted in the Denver Climate Action plan, purports to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Denver. Through city support of alternative transportation, the plan involves either incentivizing and/or searching for other ways to utilize alternative transportation. Consequently, in the interest of additionally enhancing the understanding or the critical need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, this Capstone determines to disclose common characteristics of the successful plans other cities have incorporated, and to some degree, evaluate the costs of implementing each program. The researcher utilizes the case study methodology, a form of qualitative descriptive research which the researcher utilized to address the primary research question, which queries: "What plans can the City and County of Denver, Colorado implement to reduce Green House gas emissions in Denver?."

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The best plan is, as the common proverb has it, to profit by the folly of others" www.bartleby.com/100/710.html" Pliny the Elder (A.D. c. 23-A.D. 79) www.bartleby.com/100/710.html" Pliny the Elder, as cited in Bartlett, 2000).

Context of the Problem

Currently, the United States merits the distinct embarrassment of qualifying as the world's largest producer of greenhouse gases. Researchers predict that U.S. greenhouse gas emissions will continue to increase during the next decade, with increasingly somber consequences. Elena Fagotto, and Mary Graham (2007), point out in "Full disclosure: Using transparency to fight climate change; an essential first step in any effective climate change policy is to require major contributors to fully disclose their greenhouse gas emissions" that a recent climate action report projects the projected 19% increase in emissions between 2000 and 2020 will "contribute to persistent drought, coastal flooding, and water shortages in many parts of the country and around the world" (¶ 5). If cities, counties and states continue to conduct business-as-usual, Fagotto, and Graham warn, the increase could skyrocket to 30%. Carbon dioxide emissions, the most common greenhouse gas, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports, increased by 20% from 1990 to 2005. "Emissions of three more potent fluorinated gases, hydroflu-orocarbons, perfluorocompounds, and sulfur hexafluoride, weighted for their relative contribution to climate change, increased by 82.5%. (Fagotto, & Graham, 2007, ¶ 5). Although congressional leaders currently contemplate potential long-term-approaches to counter climate change, major proposals leave would not take effect for at least three more years. During the reportedly inevitable delay, U.S. greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase.

Statement of the Problem

In consideration of the critical, contemporary concern regarding greenhouse gas emissions, a primary goal of the City and County of Denver, Colorado, noted in the Denver Climate Action plan, purports to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Denver. Through city support of alternative transportation, the plan involves either incentivizing and/or searching for other ways to utilize alternative transportation. Consequently, in the interest of additionally enhancing the understanding or the critical need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, this Capstone determines to disclose common characteristics of the successful plans other cities have incorporated, and to some degree, evaluate the costs of implementing each program.

Significance of the Study

The researcher perceives this Capstone to be personally and professionally significant as The bottom line:

Research Question and Sub-question

This Capstone, a qualitative study, utilizes the case study methodology, which proved helpful as a guide to answer this study's research questions. The primary research question for this study examines information/data to address the query: What plans can the City and County of Denver, Colorado implement to reduce Green House gas emissions in Denver? Sub-questions addressed during the course of this study include:

What are some current existing projects that incentivize the use of alternative transportation to reduce energy use, traffic congestion, and emissions of green house gases and other pollutants?

What are some of the common characteristics noted in successful projects or strategies?

What is the best way to approach the problem of Green House gas emissions?

What areas merit particular consideration and/or concern?

Organization of the Study

The following five chapters constitute the body of the Capstone.

Chapter I: Introduction

Chapter II: Literature Review

Chapter III: Methodology

Chapter IV: Analysis/Findings

Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Chapter I: Introduction

Chapter I, this study's introduction, introduces the Capstone's focus, presents the context of the problem, the problem statement, the main research question, four sub-questions addressed, and the significance of the study. The introduction also relates the research methodology the researcher used to address the primary research/sub-question(s).

Chapter II: Review of the Literature During Chapter II, the researcher presents information accessed from relevant studies and articles. This chapter explores literature which supports the research questions this Capstone proposes to answer.

Chapter III: Methodology

In Chapter III, the researcher expounds the research methodology, the case study methodology, a form of qualitative descriptive research which the researcher utilized to address the primary research question, and the four sub-questions.

Chapter IV: Analysis/Findings

Chapter IV explicates findings the researcher retrieved during this Capstone. In this section, the researcher relates specific suggested strategies for countering the increase of greenhouse gases.

Chapter V: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Chapter V of this Capstone reflects a synopsis of relevant information and relates the researcher's concluding thoughts. In addition, the researcher notes answers for this study's primary question and researched sub-questions. Ultimately, based on researched findings, the researcher proffers recommendations to encourage future researchers, and recounts lessons the researcher obtained during the learning process involved in completing this Capstone.

Entering the next phase of this Capstone, the Literature Review chapter, the researcher asserts, that in addition to the proverb attributed to Pliny the Elder, that "the best plan is...to profit by the folly of others" (www.bartleby.com/100/710.html" Pliny the Elder, as cited in Bartlett, 2000), another concept merits consideration. The best plan, the researcher contends, also profits from the knowledge others attribute.

The next chapter, as part of the researcher's plan for this Capstone, the Literature Review chapter, reflects a sampling of that knowledge related to reducing greenhouse gases.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Always design a thing by considering it in its next larger context chair in a room, a room in a house, house in an environment, an environment in a city plan"

Eliel Saarinen (Saarinen as cited in Simpson, 1988)

Introduction design of a study's search process, Auston, Cahn, and Selden (2004), stress, mandates that a researcher retrieve and integrate information during his/her gathering of research.

During this Capstone, this researcher identified a sampling of relevant literature relating to this study's focus and presents this information in this second chapter. The review of literature comprises a vital part of the case study, and constitutes an explicit, systematic approach to identifying, retrieving, and managing of credible information to locate information on a particular topic. For the design of this Capstone's literature review, the researcher considered the literature for review, as Saarien notes regarding a design: "in its nest larger context" (Saarinen as cited in Simpson, 1988). The larger context, as noted in the introduction for this study, encompasses the reduction of greenhouse gas emission. In relating considerations for this focus, the researcher chose to implement a thematic arrangement of the literature, which includes:

Existing Projects

Common Characteristics Noted in Successful Projects or Strategies

Approaches to Counter Green House gas

Programs Meriting Particular Consideration

Existing Projects

Existing projects that incentivize the use of alternative transportation to reduce energy use, traffic congestion, and emissions of green house gases and other pollutants include

Evaluation Data

Cost Data.

Characteristics in Successful Projects/Strategies

Approaches to counter green house gas

Emissions, as well as areas for concern

Public Policy-making

Research related in "Effectiveness of the mobility pass program in San Diego" supports regional transportation policy-making in San Diego, in comparable cities across California, as well as other U.S. cities. Based upon participation in a mobility pass program or Compass + Pass Program during late 2004, Louis Rea, and Sherry Ryan (2007), examine the mobility pass program's effectiveness on individual travel behavior, resulting from the utilization of combined car-sharing and transit passes. Primary findings indicate some level of latent demand exists for alternatives to the drive alone commute; particularly as an alternative in heavy peak hour traffic congestion. Program participants improved their perceptions relating to transit, Rea, and Ryan also found, when individuals participate in the Program.

Pass users in the San Diego mobility pass program received unlimited transit system access, along with limited monthly car-sharing privileges. The literature Rea, and Ryan (2007) reviewed relating to their study "demonstrates that mobility pass programs are a viable means for reducing negative impacts of drive alone travel behavior. Critical to this strategy is integration of a broad array of public and private travel modes and services" (Rea, & Ryan, p. 34). Viable choices in designing effective programs includes agencies include partnering with private and/or public operators to compliment efforts. Collaboration to diversifying travel choices through transit agencies may attract individuals, traditionally adverse to public transport.

Mobility pass programs aim to connect the flexibility of car-sharing with generally less flexible modes such as the bus, light rail or commuter rail transit. Combining access to two modes for a single fare, planners hope, will increase enrollment of both modes; increase enrollment in car-sharing programs, as well as improve the convenience, and in turn, use of public transit (Rea, & Ryan, p. 34).

Benefits from mobility programs, Rea, and Ryan stress, frequently prove significant. Mobility pass programs particularly proffer substantial benefits. Programs Meriting Particular Consideration

Programs meriting particular consideration, the literature reveals need to envelop

Car sharing,

Incentivizing public transportation,

Business incentives for compressed work weeks or telecommuting, and Congestion pricing as seen in London.

Car Sharing

In "Carsharing: A Guide for Local Planners," Adam Cohen, Susan Shaheen, and Ryan McKenzie (2008) explain that in carsharing individuals utilze private vehicle, albeit forego ownership costs and responsibilities. Instead of owning one or more vehicles, an individual, household or business may access a fleet of shared-use autos as-needed. As individuals join an organization that maintains a fleet of cars and light trucks parked in designated, leased spaces in an array of locations, they gain access to vehicles. "Vehicles are accessed on an as-needed basis, and members are typically charged each time they use a vehicle" (Shaheen & Cohen, as cited in Cohen, Shaheen, & McKenzie, p. 1). The practice of formal carsharing began more than 20 years in Europe. The first noted, formal U.S. carsharing service, however, did not start, however, until 1998, in Portland, Oregon. In January 2008, reports indicate that about 235,000 members shared approximately 5,250 vehicles in the U.S. Several years ago, some skeptics of car sharing considered potential benefits to be untested claims. Currently, however, as evidenced by experiences related by I-GO Car Sharing, founded in Chicago during March of 2002 by the Center for Neighborhood Technology (CNT), claims have proved to be facts. Carsharing delivers substantial environmental, social, and economic benefits. NumerouspPlanners, government agencies, elected officials, as well as some private sectors, collaborating with GO has seen individual members reduce "their transportation costs by as much as $4,000 a year, and a reduction of 9,725 metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions over the life of the program" (Cohen, Shaheen, & McKenzie, p. 2).

Transportation is a major contributor of CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for approximately 27% of total anthropogenic emissions in the United States and 14% globally.... According to PhillyCarShare, the combination of driving hybrids, driving less, owning fewer cars, and making fewer cold starts can yield an impressive 95% reduction in auto emissions per participant.... I n Europe, carsharing is estimated to reduce the average user's carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 40 to 50%

In 2007, Communauto announced a 13,000-ton reduction in CO2 emissions as a result of its 11,000 carsharing users in the province of Quebec, Canada....Each carsharing user reduces his or her distance traveled by car by 2,900 kilometers per year on average. Furthermore, they anticipate with a potential market of 139,000 households in Quebec that annual CO2 emission reductions could be as high as 168,000 tons per year.... (Cohen, Shaheen, & McKenzie, p. 3-4)

Incentivizing Public Transportation

Plain understandable information needs to be easily accessible for diverse audiences to enhance the support of individuals in crusade to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. "To be factored into everyday decision making routines, information must be provided at a time and place and in a standardized format that encourage its use by companies, investors, customers, business partners, and the public at large (Fagotto, & Graham, 2007, ¶ 1). Information regarding emissions information could be sent to customers with utility bills, spotlighted on product stickers, posted at a variety of locations, and presented on Websites, as well as in TV infomercials.

In "Breaking car use habits: The effectiveness of a free one-month travelcard," John Thogersen, and E. Berit Moller (2008) stress that choices to utilize public transport instead of cars prove signigicant. Approximatly 1,000 car drivers, who participated in this study received a free one-month travelcard. Results confirmed the results Thogersen, and Moller predicted; that the intervention significantly impacted drivers' use of public transport, while is additionally neutralized car driving habits' impact on the choice method. Four months after the experiment, albeit use of public transport by the experimental subjects decreased and no longer exceeded that of the control subjects. Findings confirm that given the current price-quality relationships of the various options, even though a car driver chooses his/her travel mode habitually, his/her final choice proves consistent with his/her informed preferences.

Combining Resources

Communities could benefit by adapting the four dimensions of the project noted in their study, Paul Parker, Ian H. Rowlands, and Daniel Scott (2003) assert in "Innovations to Reduce Residential Energy Use and Carbon Emissions: An Integrated Approach."

According to these authors, the integrated approach with researchers in energy studies joining their colleagues in other areas of resource and environmental management to encourage increased integration in research and policy implementation provides an effective way to counter the low implementation rates some policies experience.

The four dimensions of the integrated approach Parker, Rowlands, and Scott examined consisted of disciplinary, scalar, stakeholders and issues.

The integrated approach stressed multiple disciplines, as social factors, prove vial in assessing energy-saving opportunities.

Climate change spotlights the significance of scalar issues, as global atmospheric balances change, as aggregate individual behavior affect them. Solutions to the global environmental problem(s) require local, national and international agreements and actions.

The inclusion of multiple stakeholders impacts the success of the local project's goal(s), and enhances the potential to effectively counter barriers to action.

Integrating multiple issues in a single plan/projects, such as ones with the goal to reduce GHG emissions, may prove to enhance their potential to be effective. (Parker, Rowlands, & Scott, 2003)

Ultimately, Parker, Rowlands, and Scott (2003) concur that the need for integration in energy studies with local plans proves worthwhile.

Growing Interest Car driving frequently constitutes "the result of habitual decision-making and choice processes" (Thogersen, & Moller, 2008).

Current interest in cleaner and greener auto technology, according to Jim Motavalli (2007) in "Cleaner cars are coming, reports E - the Environmental Magazine," as well as choices that need to be made, are at a zenith. "From fuel cells to plug-in hybrids, the industry is showing more research and development zeal than at any time since the halcyon days of 1900, when gasoline, steam and electric vehicles (EVs) were competing in the marketplace" (Motavalli, p. 24).

General Motors (GM) reportedly manufactured the first plug-in hybrid production commitment in the U.S., and currently is developing a new propulsion system to further positive progress in combating greenhouse gas emissions. Despite progress in some areas by GM, cities such as London and Chicago, Motavalli (2007) asserts, a number of consumers remain confused regarding the potential technologies relating to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, much information being related in this area is either missing vital facts or blatantly wrong. To make better choices for the environment in the future, consumers, as well as planners for the city of Denver need to ensure they plan a method to obtain the best possible information. During the next chapter of this study, the methodology, the researcher asserts, in the context of this study's focus, the case study methodology proved to be the best choice for managing information.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

It is a bad plan that admits of no modification" www.bartleby.com/100/707.html" Publius Syrus (42 B.C.) (Syrus, as cited in Bartlett, 2000)

Introduction

The basic plan for this Capstone, as the researcher examined concerns evolving from greenhouse gasses, and characteristics of the successful plans other cities have incorporated to reduce those environmental challenges did not require major modifications. This researcher initially began this Capstone project for the City and County of Denver, focusing on a primary goal in their Denver Climate Action plan, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Denver through city support of alternative transportation by either incentivizing or looking for other ways to use alternative transportation. Through the process of completing the Capstone, as the quote by Syrus basically notes at this chapter's start, however, the researcher came to appreciate the truth that: A good plan admits and acclimates to modifications (Bartlett, 2000).

Research Design and Methodology Even though the basic concept of the researcher's initial plan remained constant during the Capstone, the researcher readily admits at times having to modify and/or expand particular parts of the plan. In the researcher's quest to uncover common characteristics of successful plans relating to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the researcher, for example, determined to incorporate the use of the case study methodology, a form of qualitative descriptive research, to address the primary research question, and the four sub-questions. Options for qualitative studies, according to Leedy and Ormrod (2005), include five different qualitative research designs for researchers to choose from.. These options include:

Case study,

Ethnography,

Phenomenological study,

Grounded theory study, and Content analysis.

After assessing the aforementioned available options, the researcher chose the case study methodology, as it best fits the course the researcher had determined to follow. M. Dereshiwsky (1999) explains in "Electronic Textbook - Let Us Count the Ways: Strategies for Doing Qualitative Research" that the research question(s) constitute the heart and soul of a study's investigation (Master Plan section, ¶ 1). Dereshiwsky (1999) also presents information Catherine Marshall and Gretchen Rossman developed, as he contends this information to be superior to some to match up research questions and designs, with qualitative data collection procedures (Master Plan section, ¶ 3).

Basically, a case study research design doubles as a blueprint for the researcher to plan his/her study. At the start of this case study, the researcher developed a set of questions to will address through research process. Ultimately, the researcher presents conclusions about the answers addressed by the study's questions (Case Studies, 2008). With modification, the researcher found the case study to prove helpful for keeping the study's focus in line. Dereshiwsky (1999) explains that during the implementation of the case study methodology, as the researcher examines a single or small participant pool, he/she draws conclusions only about that participant or group; only in that specific context" (Case Studies 2008, Introduction and Definition section). This proved true for the researcher in this Capstone.

During the course of the Capstone, the researcher explored a number of different sources to address the designated research questions, which ultimately led the researcher to ascertain several generalizable truths relating to this study's focus. The researcher utilized several search engines, including, but not limited to the following to secure information:

Google database;

Questia Media database;

Highbeam Research database;

Sage Publications database.

Although the existence of one particular universal method or design for a researcher to utilize for his/her case study is not possible, case studies depict a universally accepted method for exploring a myriad of various topics. Robert K. Yin points out that, along with utilizing five particular basic components, it is vital that researchers clearly articulate his/her goals for his/her study; determine the appropriate method(s) to be used to access information and/or collect data, to ultimately proffer considerations to the study's conclusion (Case Studies 2008). Yin notes that the five following study components effectively structure a research design:

study's questions.

A study's propositions (if any).

A study's units of analysis.

The logic linking of the data to the propositions.

The criteria for interpreting the findings. (Yin, as cited in Case Studies 2008)

Plans Meriting Modifications

Ultimately, using particular study components to effectively structure a case study research design reflects "logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study" (Case Studies 2008). Structuring a Capstone, the researcher asserts, also mandates the researcher plan his/her methodology, yet simultaneously be open to positive modifications. During the next section of this study, the Analysis, the researcher relates findings that samplings noted in the literature review revealed. These findings, unlike the methodology, albeit, do not merit modifications, per se, as they reflect facts rather than manipulate them.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

To look at the cross-section of any plan of a big city is to look at something like the section of a fibrous tumor"

Frank Lloyd Wright (1869-1959), U.S. architect (Wright, as cited in Columbia World of Quotations, 1996).

Introduction

When a physician suspects a patient has a fibrous tumor, he/she refers the patient to a specialist, who in turn, more closely examines the "problem" specimen. This analysis chapter looks at particular cross-sections of this study's problem, which could figuratively equate to a fibrous tumor: The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

Considerations for Denver

Information regarding negative environmental consequences from greenhouse gas emissions, along with positive information reflecting counters to this critical concern could be sent to customers with the utility bills, spotlighted on numerous product stickers, posted at prominent places, such as entrances at a variety of locations, and presented on company Websites. TV infomercials could also enhance the educational effort.

Figure1 depicts relates a number of ways Denver could relate relevant information egarding greenhouse gas emissions.

Figure 1: Avenues for Promoting Relevant Information (adapted from Fagotto, & Graham, 2007)

Potential Opportunities Although the reduction of green house gas emissions were not noted during the study Robert, and Brjesson (2006) conducted, the researcher perceives this to be a potential added benefit. Telecommuting possess the potential to save the employee time and mitigate some of the pressure the employee experiences from traffic pressure during his/her work commuting. Telecommuting could also save the company costs, and proffers the opportunity to positively contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Figure 2 depicts potential opportunities relating to telecommuting.

Figure 2: Potential Benefits from Telecommuting (adapted from Robert, & Brjesson, 2006).

The Four Dimensions Integrated Approach

Figure 3 portrays the four dimensions Parker, Rowlands, and Scott (2003) recommend planners consider implementing in their efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emission.

Figure 3: Four Recommended Dimensions Relating to GHG (adapted from Parker, Rowlands, & Scott, 2003).

Characteristics in Successful Projects/Strategies

Figure 4 portrays a number of characteristics in successful projects/strategies, the researcher asserts, that merit consideration by the city of Denver in crafting its plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Figure 4: Aiming to Craft a Positive Plan (adapted from this study).

Conclusion

During the final chapter of this Capstone, the researcher recounts cross-sections of information covered in this study. In turn, the researcher hopes that Denver will have gained additional insight as to better plan to "cut out" or decrease the size of some of the fibers connecting to the problem of greenhouse gasses.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

If you plan for a year, plant a seed.

If for ten years, plant a tree.

If for a hundred years, teach the people.

When you sow a seed once, you will reap a single harvest.

When you teach the people, you will reap a hundred harvests"

Kuan Chung (d. 645 B.C.) (Chung, as cited in Respectfully Quoted..., 2003).

Introduction

Considerations for the City of Denver in its quest to produce a plan to sow a seed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions were explored during this Capstone. As this study embraced a thematic arrangement of the literature, particular themes examined included existing projects, common characteristics noted in successful projects or strategies, approaches to counter green house gas and programs meriting particular consideration.

Discussion

Existing Projects that incentivize the use of alternative transportation to reduce energy use, traffic congestion, and emissions of green house gases and other pollutants include

Evaluation Data... (did not have research for this)

Cost Data....(did not have research for this)

Characteristics in Successful Projects/Strategies, the literature notes,

Approaches to counter green house gas

Emissions, as well as areas for concern

Public policy-making considerations included the concept of a mobility pass program as diversification of travel choices through transit agencies may attract individuals, and increase participation in public transport systems. Other relevant considerations for programs include carsharing, incentivizing public transportation, business incentives for compressed work weeks or telecommuting, and congestion pricing as seen in London.

Conclusion Along with combining resources, the researcher concludes the need for the city of Denver to Educate Individuals and Organizations;

Implement Appropriate Charges for Abuses;

Provide Incentives for Positive Changes.

To complement and enhance the contemporary consumer's growing interest in cleaner and greener auto technology, which in turn will contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the researcher concludes, consumers need credible, relevant information to help dissipated the current confused regarding this critical concern.

Having access to information providing accurate, credible information/fact will empower individuals, including those crafting the plan for Denver to reduce GHG emissions, to make better choices for the environment, not only for the future, but for today.