Racial disparities in student participation in cocurricular activities

Co-Curricular Activities

High school can be a difficult time for adolescents as they grow into adults and prepare to move away from home. This time period can be complicated further by social pressures. In the past several studies have suggested that engaging in co-curricular activities can facilitate the development necessary to assist students as they move on the next phase in life. However, there are many students of color who are not always as involved in co-curricular as their White peers.

Co-curricular activities are inclusive of sports, academic clubs and other school cubs. Involvement in these activities has been found to give students a sense of belonging and school pride. Belonging and school pride are important for students to possess because they motivate students attend school and perform well academically. In addition the social interaction given to students through these activities increases confidence and makes students more well rounded. School engagement is also important for students' future academic careers as students who participate in co-curricular activities in high school are more likely to engage in similar activities in college. Students who are engaged in these activities in college are more likely to complete college.

Although there is significant evidence to suggest that co-curricular activities are essential to academic success, a great deal of research has found that students of color are less likely to engage in these activities. Some of the reasons for lack of engagement may be inclusive of socio-economic status, the absence of clubs that cater to their interests and peers that look down upon engagement in certain school activities.

Problem Statement

Students of color are less likely to participate in co-curricular activities than are their

White peers. Lack of engagement in co-curricular activities increases the likelihood that students will drop out of high school. Those who do graduate from high school and go on to college are likely to have a more difficult time in completing college because they are less likely to engage in co-curricular activities in college. Co-curricular involvement in high school is critical for academic success and advancement. As such the absence of students of color in co-curricular activities has a devastating impact on their ability to engage in school.

Research Questions

The research questions for the proposed study are as follows"

1. Why are students of color less likely to participate in co-curricular activities?

2. Is there a correlation between lack of participation in co-curricular activities and attrition rates and academic performance?

3. What steps can be taken to increase the numbers of students of color participating in co-curricular activities?

Purpose of Study

The purpose of the proposed study is to uncover the reasons why high school students of color do not participate in co-curricular activities at the same rate as their White counterparts. The research will seek to uncover the relationship, if any, between the absence of students of color in co-curricular activities and dropout rates, attendance and grades.

Review of Literature

Benefits of co-curricular activities

The push for students to have access to co-curricular activities in high school is caused by the perceived benefits of such activities. For instance the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) asserts that activities including interscholastic sports and fine arts encourage citizenship and sportsmanship. These activities also "instill a sense of pride in community, teach lifelong lessons of teamwork and self-discipline and facilitate the physical and emotional development of our nation's youth." The article further explains that there are three main benefits associated with co-curricular activities including:

1. Support of the Academic Mission of Schools- Activities do not serve as a diversion to academics, instead they are an extension of academic programs. Participation in such activities leads to higher grade-point averages, lower dropout rates better attendance records, and decreases in disciplinary problems ("The Case for High School Activities").

2. Activities are Educational. Activities are needed because they provide students with important lessons for practical situations. These situations include sportsmanship, teamwork, and hard work. Participation in co-curricular activities teaches self-confidence, self-discipline, and how to manage competitive situations. These are characteristics that schools are expect to instill in students to prepare them for adulthood ("The Case for High School Activities").

3. Foster Success in Later Life. Students who Participate in high school activities are usually successful in college, a career and becoming a contributing member of society.

The article further explains that co-curricular activities also help kids to stay out of trouble once school is over. The article asserts that

"School-age children and teens who are unsupervised during the hours after school are far more likely to use alcohol, drugs and tobacco, engage in criminal and other high-risk behaviors, receive poor grades, and drop out of school than those children who have the opportunity to benefit from constructive activities supervised by responsible adults. In a 1994

Harris poll, more than one-half of teachers singled out "children who are left on their own after school" as the primary explanation for students' difficulties in class. This information comes from the National Education Commission on Time and Learning ("The Case for High School Activities")."

Research has also found that Voisin & Neilands (2010) also asserts that involvement in school activities reduces the likelihood that youths will engage in risky sex. They report that one study found that "among a group of multiethnic youth aged 10 through 17, school bonding was predictive of lower rates of alcohol abuse and dependency over a five-year period. It is widely acknowledged that drug use during sexual activity increases the likelihood of engaging in risky sex (Voisin & Neilands (2010)." Additionally the authors report that the correlation between sexual activity and school engagement variables can be defined by social control theory. Social control theory asserts that the kinship to traditional society is dependent upon four elements: belief in traditional values, attachment to others, participation in traditional activities, and a bond to traditional society. The traditional characteristics described are usually reflected on prosocial environments including schools. As such when the connects to these environments is weak or unstable there is an increased likelihood that students will be attracted to peers who engage in risky behaviors including sex.

Overall, the research thus far suggests that there are many benefits associated with participation in school activities. The research asserts that co-curricular activities offer students a different type of learning experience and these experiences translate into the classroom and into life. Qualities such as teamwork are important throughout the academic career of students and as such a great deal of focus must be placed on ensuring that students are exposed to co-curricular activities. The research also suggests that co-curricular activities are of particular importance to adolescents because they keep them out of trouble. Many young people engage in deviant behaviors right after school when they could be participating in co-curricular activities. These activities give students a focus that is positive and keeps them out of trouble. The research also explains that engagement in co-curricular activities decreases the likelihood that young people will engage in risky behaviors because these activities connect them to school and the traditional values that are held at school. When students are not engaged in school activities, they tend to engage more frequently in risky behaviors.

Impact of co-curricular activities on Attendance and Grades

Most of the research on this topic asserts that participation in co-curricular activities enhances attendances and grades for students.

"A wide range of behaviors both in and out of school have been shown to predict dropout and graduation. One of the most important is student engagement, which includes students' active involvement in academic work (e.g., coming to class, doing homework) and the social aspects of school (e.g., participating in sports or other extracurricular activities). Research consistently finds that high absenteeism -- one specific indicator of engagement -- is associated with higher dropout rates. Misbehavior in high school and delinquent behavior outside of high school are both significantly associated with higher dropout and lower graduation rates (Rumberger & Lim, 2008)."

In addition to lower drop-out rates studies have shown that students who participate in co-curricular activities have better attendance than students who do not participate in these activities. Students want to go to school not only because they want to participate in co-curricular activities but also because they are invested in the school and engaged in the activities available through the school.

Lastly, the grade point averages of those students who participate in co-curricular activities are also higher. This is due in part to the fact that many activities require that students maintain a certain GPA to participate in the activity. If the activity is something that the student really enjoys, the maintaining good grades become the incentive to be able to continue with the activity. Additionally once students become involved in certain activities at school such as sports they also begin to feel a responsibility toward their teammates to keep their grades up so that the team can benefit.

School engagement

Dotterer et al. (2007) explains that School engagement can be defined as "students' feelings, behaviors, and thoughts about their school experiences and is an important construct given its links to academic outcomes such as achievement and high school completion (Dotterer et al. 2007)." The authors also explain that there is a great deal of interest in the concept of school engagement because it is believed to be influenced by environmental changes (Fredricks et al., 2004; Dotterer et al. 2007). As a result of racial and ethnic achievement gaps, the study of school engagement amongst students of color is essential to closing these gaps. Previous research uncovered a pattern of underachievement in African-American students who have lower grades and receive less education than non-Hispanic White students (Dotterer et al. 2007).

According to Jimerson et al. (2003) there are three dimensions of school engagement: affective, behavioral, and cognitive. The affective dimension is associated with an emotional connection to school and the sense of belonging that students have with their school. Additionally this dimension of school engagement is often referred to as school attachment (Johnson et al., 2001). The affective dimension of school engagement "reflects the extent to which students feel close to people at their school, feel a part of their school, and are happy to be at their school…the affective bond between students and their schools is "identification with school" (Jimerson et al. 2003; Dotterer et al. 2007),."

Additionally, the behavioral dimension of school engagement refers to the observable actions or performance of students. Behavior is assessed using tools such as the completion of homework, paying attention, attendance,, and grades (Jordan, 2000; Johnson et al., 2001; Dotterer et al. 2007). Lastly, the cognitive dimension of school engagement refers to the perceptions and beliefs of students associated with self, teachers, school, and peers at school. Additionally, illustrations of the cognitive dimension include a sense of self-efficacy in addition to academic motivation and aspirations of students (Jimerson et al., 2003; Dotterer et al. 2007). Each of these dimensions plays a role in ensuring that students are well rounded and fully engaged in the school environment.

Overall, school activities provide students with an opportunity for school engagement. School engagement is important because it facilitates the presence of school pride and belonging. When students feel that they belong they are more likely to stay focused in behave in ways consistent with the expectations established by the school. The various dimensions of school engagement represent the various ways that school engagement impacts students in the academic setting. The research suggests that school engagement is an extremely positive attribute that is created as the result of participation in school activities. The absence of school engagement leads to students who do not have a sense of belonging and as such their performance in school is often mediocre and may not reflect their true academic abilities.

The impact Co-curricular activities

There are several impacts of co curricular activities. These impacts involve the development of adolescents and providing a foundation for success in college. The following paragraphs will explain these outcomes of co-curricular activities in greater detail.

Adolescent development

The development of adolescents is vitally important and co-curricular activities provide an opportunity for such development to occur. According to Feldman & Matjasko (2005)

"The settings of extracurricular activities serve as a place to act out the developmental tasks of adolescence. It is believed that extracurricular activities offer a means to express and explore one's identity, generate social and human capital, and offer a challenging setting outside of academics. Adolescents form their identity by developing skills, discovering preferences, and associating themselves with others (Youniss et al., 2002). Being a member of a particular group structures what individuals do with their time and the kinds of values and norms to which they are exposed. Participating in extracurricular activities helps adolescents come to understand themselves by observing and interpreting their own behavior when they are engaged in these activities (Valentine, Cooper, Bettencourt, & DuBois, 2002; Feldman & Matjasko 2005)."

With these things understood, the ways in which adolescents interact with their peers can have an impact on the activities that they choose to engage in. In addition this interaction influences the nature of their developmental pathway (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). The authors also report that at some future point in adolescence, young people may even choose an activities based on the ability of the activity to confirm the aspects of their identity that they value (Feldman & Matjasko 2005).

Additionally as it pertains to academic development tasks, past studies have suggested that participation in extracurricular activities presents young people with the chance to increase their social capital through extended supportive networks of both friends and adults (Kahne et al., 2001; Feldman & Matjasko 2005). Additionally the time that adolescents spend engaging in after-school co-curricular activities serves as a contrast to the normally quick-paced schedule students adhere to during the school day (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). While engaged in extracurricular activities, students are given the opportunities to get to know peers and adults in a better way which facilitates better personal bonding, mutual trust and loyalty (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). In addition engagement in co-curricular activities provides students with the chance to develop mentoring or coaching relationships (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). This type of relationship development is important because mentors and coaches often supply students with the assistance and motivation needed to meet their personal goals and to excel in various aspects of life including academics. In addition the presence of this type of relationship may be present later on in life in the workforce or in college.

Participation in co-curricular activities is also important of adolescents because it assists them in the forging of personal relationships with other students who have similar interests (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). There is also the likelihood that participation permits students to interact with adults from the school or community who are there to provide support for the activity (Dworkin, Larson, & Hansen, 2003; Smith, 2003; Feldman & Matjasko 2005). Such interaction is believed to encourage school engagement and to improve scholastic achievement (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). For instance, a case study involving nine high-achieving female high school students, researchers found that the subjects recognized engagement in extracurricular activities, as being extremely significant to their accomplishments by permitting them to develop supportive networks of peers and adults who had achieved a great deal (Feldman & Matjasko 2005).

Lastly the authors explain that extracurricular activities are important because they present students with a challenging setting outside of academics that helps them maintain contact with the school environment (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). The authors also assert that for many students co-curricular activities allow them to develop additional skills and recognition that beyond that associated with academic achievement. On the other hand, "for others, activities may be the only place to obtain success tied to the school context, in that such success would not be obtained through academics. While support for this notion is largely theoretical, one study comparing students who were athlete-scholars, athletes only, scholars only, and neither athletes nor scholars showed that members of the "athletes-only" group had more friendship nominations and were more likely to part of the "leading crowd" than members of the "scholars-only" group (Feldman & Matjasko 2005)."

The authors also report that students who excelled in sports related activities instead of academics were still able to receive the acknowledgment and respect of their peers, which was correlated with enhanced psychosocial outcomes (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). Additionally, "the issue of self-selection into activity participation must always be considered. It is possible that students who are more likely be in the "leading crowd" regardless of participation are those who also choose to participate in sports (Feldman & Matjasko 2005). Selection issues, while difficult to account for in most research on extracurricular activity participation, must at least be acknowledged as a factor (Feldman & Matjasko 2005)."

Collegiate impact of co-curricular activities in High School

One the primary benefits of co-curricular activities in high school is that such involvement translates to involvement in college activities and a greater likelihood of college completion. According to Kuh et al. (2008)

"psychosocial engagement," or the energy students invest in social interactions, directly influences the degree to which they are socially integrated into college life. The student engagement construct used in this study is consistent with the theoretical models that feature the interplay between student behaviors and perceptions of the institution and psychosocial engagement. Student engagement represents both the time and energy students invest in educationally purposeful activities and the effort institutions devote to using effective educational practices (Kuh, 2001). Some studies (e.g., Hughes & Pace, 2003) show that students who leave college prematurelyare less engaged than their counterparts who persist (Kuh et al., 2008)."

On the other hand the majority of the research that examines the realationship between student engagement and college outcomes has as a foundation single institution studies. These studies do not necessarily "control for student background characteristics, limiting their generalizability to specific institutions or institutional types (Kuh et al., 2008)." Additionally there are extremely few studies that take into account large, multi-institution information utilizing student level data (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Kuh et al., 2008). The authors also explain that the extent to which student engagement and other measures of effective educational practice contribute to achievement and persistence over and above student ability are unclear (Kuh et al., 2008).

Overall the research suggests that two of the most positive outcomes of involvement in extra-curricular activities is the development of adolescents and an increased likelihood that those who participate in such activities in high school are also likely to participate in such activities once they enter college which increases the likelihood that they will complete college. The research suggest that co-curricular activities are specifically designed to provide a setting that is different from the academic setting but still provide students with a learning experience. These experiences assist in the development of students while also preparing them for the challenges associated with maneuvering the collegiate environment.

Methods and Procedures

The research will utilize a five-point Likert scale such as the following:

1= Strongly Disagree

2= Disagree

3= Neutral