This paper analyzes the ethical implications of computer technology use in school psychology practice across the United States. Drawing on guidelines from the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists, it identifies key ethical risks related to client confidentiality, record management, electronic communications, assessment, direct interventions, research, and professional competence. The paper argues that while computers offer significant benefits for efficiency and intervention delivery, psychologists bear ultimate responsibility for their ethical use. It concludes with a comprehensive set of practice standards that school psychologists should follow to ensure technology enhances rather than compromises the integrity of psychological services.
Psychologists in public and private schools in America have an ethical obligation to determine how computers can assist practice. Given the potential to improve efficiency and competence, they must simultaneously reflect carefully on the ethical and professional practice implications. The features of computers that make them most beneficial also render them vulnerable to ethical abuse. With increased use of computer-related technology, disagreements involving professional ethics, values of professional behavior, and personal principles arise in every area of practice.
Psychologists should not replace conventional practice with technological advances; rather, they should use technology to enhance practice. Ultimately, responsibility remains with the psychologist and cannot be transferred to the technology. Primary ethical principles are the same whether using computer technology or any other professional tool.
The American Psychological Association (APA) Ethics Committee (1996), the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP, 2000), and the APA Committee on Professional Standards and Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessment (1986) have directly addressed ethical concerns related to psychologists' use of technology. Numerous professional ethical standards are pertinent to this discussion (Heron, Martz, & Margolis, 1996; Hughes, 1986; Jacob-Timm & Hartshorne, 1998; Pryzwansky, 1993).
Because computers have the potential to improve the efficiency and competence of school psychologists' work, these professionals acquire an "ethical imperative" to establish the manner in which computers can assist practice (Ager, 1991). As theorized by McKinlay (1988), "with greater knowledge and power, come greater forms and degrees of the use and abuse of tools for psychosocial change" (p. 370). Technology presents numerous and often seemingly simple opportunities for ethical violations (Heron et al., 1996; Mann, 1998). The very efficiency and power of computers in evaluating and managing individuals creates a potential to seriously infringe on human rights through both poor design and inappropriate use.
Psychologists in public and private schools in America maintain the child's well-being as paramount (Jacob-Timm & Hartshorne, 1998). When using computer technology, they must remain aware that computers are only as precise, accurate, reliable, and responsive as the humans who developed the programs (Engels, Caulum, & Sampson, 1984). Currently, computer programs lack uniform standards for quality assurance.
As Carr (1991) observed, "human therapists require a license to ensure they are competent, and the same should apply to computer programs" (p. 73). In the absence of licensing, it is incumbent on each psychologist to verify the appropriateness of computer programs used in practice by seeking independent evaluations. Similarly, school psychologists should not encourage others—whether children or educators—to use software products that have not been constructively assessed.
Confidentiality between school psychologists and clients is necessary to establish trust and influences the effectiveness of assessments, counseling, treatment, and research. Privacy is rooted in professional ethics, and in many jurisdictions, legal requirements strengthen the obligation for psychologists to maintain confidentiality (Bersoff, 1995).
State and local laws vary regarding the length of time psychologists must retain records and whether computerized storage is appropriate. Beyond applicable laws, the APA recommends maintaining the full record for three years, an abstract for twelve years, and records for minors for three years past the age of majority (APA, 1993). School psychologists should establish a systematic procedure for reviewing computer-based files to merge working notes and remove outdated material.
Records stored on computers must be protected by passwords and should use non-networked systems. Consistent with APA (1992) guidelines, when psychologists enter sensitive information into databases or records systems accessible to persons without authorization, they must use encryption and avoid including personal identifiers. If psychologists maintain archived computer records as a source of information for diagnostic and treatment strategies, they must remove identifying information, as outdated information such as later-discounted diagnoses could harm clients (Sturges, 1998).
Electronic mail enables a frequency of contact that is nearly impossible through in-person meetings or telephone calls. Email is an effective communication method offering high interactivity, high speed, low cost, and independence from time and location constraints. It can expand consultation, offer peer support, and generate a two-way electronic community as professionals work to help students (Harvey & Kruger, 1998; Macklem & Kruger, 1997).
However, email communication has significant limitations. Many concerns relate to the semantic content of electronically sent messages. Receivers often misinterpret messages because of near-immediate responses, the lack of feedback during message delivery, the mixing of casual and formal communication, and the increased likelihood that messages will convey strong emotions (Shapiro & Anderson, 1985). The APA Ethics Committee (1996) and the National Board of Certified Counselors (Bloom & Walz, 2000) note that members frequently find the absence of nonverbal and social cues in email to be problematic. Sproull and Kiesler (1991) suggested that the lack of these cues results in more frequent hostile messages on the Internet compared to paper mail or face-to-face conversation.
Shapiro and Anderson (1985) recommend that email users assume all messages are permanent, avoid trivialities, refrain from responding while emotionally aroused, clearly mark emotions expressed, and explicitly tag opinions as such. They further advise that email users identify themselves and their organizations, limit messages to a single subject, maintain a mental model of the intended audience, reduce the number of recipients, avoid abusive or critical comments about third parties, and respond to misdirected messages to notify the sender of the error. Rereading messages that provoke strong emotions promotes greater perception and understanding.
Computer-assisted test administration, interpretation, and report writing can be quite helpful to psychologists in completing assessments. Psychologists considering computer applications for assessment must also carefully consider and address the inherent ethical issues. Some authors (Jacob-Timm & Hartshorne, 1998; Owaby, 1997) question the appropriateness of using narratives or portions thereof created by software programs instead of the psychologist directly. Others (Eyde et al., 1993) neither endorse nor oppose the practice but propose strategies for responsible use that include combining computer-generated findings with other information and identifying and rejecting errors and exaggerations in computer-generated narratives.
Online therapy raises numerous serious ethical issues, many of which remain unresolved. Humphreys, Winzelberg, and Klaw (2000) investigated psychologists' ethical responsibilities as facilitators, advisors, and peer members in Internet-based groups and noted that the expansion of Internet technology and online groups has outpaced the development of formal ethical guidelines for psychologists. The absence of face-to-face contact is a serious concern, as is the loss of privacy and difficulty in meeting the duty to warn due to distance and anonymity on the Internet. Additionally, online therapy may violate the requirement to practice within one's area of expertise, state regulation of therapy, and obscure the need for malpractice insurance (DuMez, 2000).
Because of anonymity and physical distance, serious questions about appropriate roles and responsibilities arise from ethically ambiguous situations such as discussions of suicide on the Internet (Richard, Werth, & Rogers, 2000). The ability of a psychologist to conduct an adequate assessment, develop an appropriate treatment plan, and respond effectively in life-threatening situations based solely on computer-mediated interaction cannot be assured (APA Ethics Committee, 1995).
Protecting research participant privacy has become more complicated with the advent of computer technology (Akeroyd, 1991). Researchers face the challenge of obtaining sufficient information about participants to meet research requirements while maintaining sufficient anonymity that other individuals who know the participants cannot identify them if they access the data. It is important to recognize that many aspects of computer systems are beyond the researcher's control, and even when only authorized personnel have access, system administrators and operators may have access to sensitive information. If data contains sufficient identifying details, participants may still be identifiable. Non-networked microcomputers offer additional protection but are not completely secure.
It is essential for psychologists using computers to facilitate consultation to be sensitive to the possibility of violations of professional ethical standards. No matter how secure a network appears, it is impossible to guarantee that all messages will remain confidential. Consulting school psychologists should not share confidential information that could identify a client or other person with whom they have a confidential relationship unless they have obtained prior consent or disclosure is unavoidable (APA, 1992). Psychologists should share information only to the extent necessary to achieve the purposes of the consultation. To avoid presenting false expertise, individuals using team consultation software must have training in consultation and interventions and should use the software to enhance their already-established expertise (Aldrich, 2001).
"Training requirements and ongoing competence in technology use"
Psychologists in public and private schools in America must prioritize the child's well-being in all computer applications. They should not replace conventional practice with technological advances but should use technology to supplement and enhance their practice and to work more efficiently. Computers are merely tools, and psychologists must be highly selective in choosing software, fully aware that ultimate ethical responsibility lies with them.
Psychologists must also take steps to protect privacy when managing computerized student records and reports or using computers for communication. They should be aware of and take steps to address the possibility that computer technology may expose clients to unqualified and untrained "therapists" and potentially inaccurate information on the Internet. Training programs should take advantage of computer technology's potential for improving educational measures while ensuring that graduates have a solid foundation in the ethical use of technology including Internet information sources, test scoring and report writing, online communication, and computerized academic and socio-emotional interventions.
To operationalize these principles, psychologists in public and private schools in America should establish the following practice standards:
"Psychologists retain ultimate responsibility regardless of technology used"
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