Plato's theory of justice and the ideal state in the Republic

Plato (the Republic)

There have been numerous theories concerning the best means through which equality, justice, and at the same time power can be achieved and defended by a state. At this moment in time the rule of democracy and that of the democratic principles is considered to be most suitable for the world we live in. However, there are arguments to support the idea that democracy as we know it today is not the best means to govern in a global society especially taking into account the massive negative reactions that are evident in the world against the western democratic system. Democracy is at its foundation a principle that ensures equal treatment of all human beings, yet, for instance, it refuses to ensure equal rights for religious worship. Although such an example would necessitate further debate, it has been provided to argue that, to this day, the best means to govern has not yet been established and depend on the local, regional, national and international context.

The theory of philosophical thought has taken this matter into account since the earliest of times. Plato in this sense is one of the most significant theorists of the ideal state. Although his initial beliefs of the ideal state are no longer applicable to the current day realities, his views on the matter are crucial for understanding certain aspects of the organization of the state from a philosophical perspective. The "polis" or the ideal state as it is presented in the "Republic" is not a political project, but rather an analogy used by Plato to be able to answer a more complex question on the meaning of "justice"

. Therefore, the theory of the soul and the virtues of the soul, as well as its projection on the idea of the state, represent a model to better identify the forms of justice as "oikeioragia - justice." Overall, neither the ideal state nor a soul in perfect harmony with the notion of justice, actually exist in the real world. In this world, there are only corrupt forms of these ideas, an aspect that is clearly visible to this day. Yet the perceptions and theories that have tried to answer such questions are important to provide perspective and to eventually justify the development of the state, of justice, and of other terms as they are today.

2. Background

Plato is one of the greatest ancient philosophers that has given birth to an original and profound philosophical thought. He is believed to have been at the foundation of political thought through the impressive work he achieved in the early days of the construction of states in human civilization

. His contributions to the theories of the state are essential to this day and are seen as crucial for the theories developed since ancient Greece onwards.

Plato's philosophy however was based on previous works from philosophers such as Heraclites and Socrates. Despite these influences however, his work far surpasses that of his predecessors through the way in which the ideas were developed. The Dialogue technique was impressive and served the purpose of the dialectical exercise. Initially the technique was taken from Socrates. Plato opted for the form of dialogue to express his views on different philosophical matters for several reasons. One of the main reasons relates to the fact that Plato was an admirer of the dramatic genre and considered the dialogue to be a dramatic and pedagogical form of expressing his philosophy. Another reason relates to the actual structure of the dialogue that he considered useful for reaching the truth through conversation. The technique makes it less artificial the argumentation and counter argumentation that in the end reveals the arguments and the eventual conclusion.

Plato's dialogues are divided into youth, maturity, and old age works. The "Republic" is part of his maturity works. The characters in his dialogues are people and philosophers that either lived at the time of writing the dialogues or before that. However, in almost all of his dialogues Socrates is present as a character. In his philosophical endeavors, Plato follows the Greek life (Heraclites, Pythagoras, Parmenides). At the same time though he uses nature, religion, and ancient myths to argue his own beliefs. Even if in the beginning he uses Socrates' ideas he soon departs from them to consider his own line of judgment.

3. Terminology and content

The "Republic" is one of the most important collections of political ideas that remained since ancient times

. The dialogues revolve around the best way a society must be led and organized. The starting point of the organization is, according to Plato, the nation, based on the principle of justice. Plato considers the forms of state organization present in his days as unfit and unsuited and he therefore proposes the creation of an ideal state. Even a single individual can initiate such a construction. However, this individual must first and foremost consider very thoroughly the guiding principles that must be at the base of this construction. The initiator can only be a philosopher and he can only be a representative of the aristocracy. This differentiation is based on the belief however that people are not equal. Some of them are endowed with certain qualities that make them suitable to uphold certain functions in the republic, while other need to follow the leaders rather than become leaders in their turn.

Plato in his work the "Republic" makes particular assumptions that are relevant to this day. In Book VIII, on the four forms of government, Plato argues that "the States are as the men are; they grow out of human characters"

. This mention comes to point out that in fact the state, regardless of its constitution is as good as its components. Although there are laws that govern the well being of the state, these are created and enacted by individuals and not by a supreme construction independent of the human being

. From this point-of-view, Plato's emphasis on the nature of the human being, and his quality as a just or unjust individual is relevant for the dialogue.

The notion mentioned before is also applicable in today's world. Indeed, there is a different background and cultural consideration to be taken into account than the ones in ancient Greece. However, taking as status quo the existence of a certain form of government, in this case democracy, the results on the short run can be different depending on who in fact is leading this democratic government

. For instance, in the United States, the overall directions of leadership change once the Democratic and the Republican parties change. During a Republican Administration there is more focus on a more liberal doctrine, on a more engaged foreign policy, and bolder economic strives. When the Democratic Administration is heading the White House and the Government, the directions of leadership change in the sense that more emphasis is on social measures, a more pacifist foreign policy. This is not to say that the basis of the form of government changes but rather that the content of such government is influenced by the actual people that develop policies which eventually influence the dwellers of a "polis" or the citizens of a state in today's world. Therefore, one of Plato's assumptions in ancient Greece is valid to this day and applicable in everyday politics.

The four forms of government presented by Plato included the Spartan polity, the oligarchical, democratical, and tyrannical

. His aim in his comparison of these forms of government is to eventually reveal the degree of happiness or unhappiness of those leading a just or unjust life. This exercise is, as mentioned previously, related to Plato's general exercise and debate on justice and happiness rather than on the actual forms of governing a state. Indeed, a side result of the general discussion, the debate on the just or unjust forms of government is further emphasizes; yet this is not a purpose in itself. More precisely, "Plato tries to determine which of the four forms of xaxia produces the least unhappiness and which the greatest wretchedness. Clearly what Plato attempts to establish -- but again in terms of his own conception of justice -- is that any intermediate life, any soul characterized by some degree of injustice is inferior in point of happiness to the perfectly just, despite any other good things in intermediate life might include"

5. Relationship between individual and political community

According to Plato, democracy was not considered the ideal state. The ideal state in fact cannot be applied to any state, past or present particularly because the ideal state in the opinion of the philosopher had to take into account above all the education and knowledge of the individual. This aspect only points out the fact that the actual arguments of Plato's ideal state were only side considerations for a more philosophical view on life which, neither then nor now, do not consider the realities and necessities of the political community or the social one.

The community is not merely an association of independent individuals but rather a live organism that is however dynamic and depends on its components. Yet, in the view of Plato there is a clear distinction between the rulers and the economic power that are part of the political community. However this, in any state, does not represent a viable solution. At that time, Athens was one of the most important commercial points of the European continent and in deep competition with other cities at the Mediterranean

. Such a separation between the powers was not sustainable. From this point-of-view, it is clear that Plato's arguments on the ideal state followed more a philosophical path rather than a political theory structure.

6. Nature of the political authority

The nature of the political authority, in the state envisaged by Plato is the knowledge and the education. As mentioned previously, in order for the ideal state to provide a good life for its population, it must be run by individuals of knowledge and educated in the spirit of Socrates.

The deviation from the ideal state however is justified through the loss of this type of source of political authority. Therefore, in Book VIII, the four forms of government are discussed in detail; the denigration of each of them lies in the loss of the political authority by those that have been educated and knowledgeable in the spirit of the philosophers. More precisely, "the decline of aristocracy -- the rule of the philosophers happens by magic; children are begotten at the wrong time and are unworthy (…) and the next generation is under-educated. Some of them turn towards money making and private property is eventually instituted among the rulers (…) this is timocracy and the next stage, oligarchy is simply an increase in the energy given to money making"

The transformation from the ideal state to democracy and eventually tyranny takes into account, in Plato's terms, the desire for economic gains and for money making. Theoretically, without the proper education of children from the aristocracy and the knowledge of the rulers, the political authority falls in the wrong hands and is corrupted. Therefore, an important aspect that rulers must take into account is the limited access to economic means and an increased attention on education.

7. Virtues

The entire work is focused on actually determining the definitions of the values of the human soul. According to Plato's text there are several main virtues of the soul. One of them is being wise. After several considerations and dialogues and argumentations, the conclusion is that a wise person is the one that knows what "good" represents in relation to its own person

Courage is yet another virtue that is important for the human soul and that defines the just person. The absence of courage determines faltering in the face of danger, perils, or pain. A courageous person does not change its attitude in the wake of such challenges.

Moderation is a strong component of the just individual and implies the capacity of the human being to temperate the parts of the soul that would otherwise be in disagreement. Plato defines the parts of the soul as being reason, spirit, and appetite

. If the individual can temperate the urges coming from all three parts of the soul, he is exercising moderation.

Justice in the case of the human being is the consideration of all these virtues into a single soul. Unjust people do not have one of these virtues and are therefore not considered for leadership or ruler.

Conclusions

Plato's the "Republic" is one of the most important philosophical works of ancient times. This assumption is not only made based on the content and value it has for the philosophical spectrum of ideas but also for the dialectical elements of its construction. Although it cannot be considered a traditional treatise of political theory, it touches on aspects that relate to the way in which states can and may be run. Even so, the theories concerning the ideal state cannot be applied at any given moment in the history of civilization. However, the study and debate on the forms of government and the way in which these forms of government degenerate one from another are important contributions to political theory and to understanding certain aspects of political developments.

Notes and Bibliography

Benjamin Jowett, trans. The Republic by Plato. (2003-2012) Online version at http://www.literaturepage.com/read/therepublic.htm

Berstein, Serge, and Pierre Milza. Histoire de l'Europe. (Paris: Hatier, 1994)

Braunstein, Florence, and Pepin, Jean Francois. Les Grandes Doctrines. (Paris: Ellipses, 1998)

Dunleavy, Patrick, and Brendan O'Leary. Theories of the state. The Politics of Liberal Democracy. (London and New York: Macmillan and Meredith, 1987)

Eric a. Havelock, Preface to Plato. (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963).

I.M. Crombie, an Examination of Plato's Doctrines . (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962).

R.N. Sharma, Plato: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 1991)

Richard Hare, Plato. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).

Richard Kraut, ed. Pato's Republic: Critical Essays. (Maryland: Rowman&Littlefiled Publishers, 1997).

Braunstein, Florence, and Pepin, Jean Francois. Les Grandes Doctrines. (Paris: Ellipses, 1998)

Braunstein and Pepin

Berstein, Serge, and Pierre Milza. Histoire de l'Europe. (Paris: Hatier, 1994)

Benjamin Jowett, trans. The Republic by Plato. Online version at http://www.literaturepage.com/read/therepublic.html

Braunstein, and Pepin.

Dunleavy, Patrick, and Brendan O'Leary. Theories of the state. The Politics of Liberal Democracy. (London and New York: Macmillan and Meredith, 1987)

Jowett.

Richard Kraut, ed. Pato's Republic: Critical Essays. (Maryland: Rowman&Littlefiled Publishers, 1997), p8

Eric a. Havelock, Preface to Plato. (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963), p3

Richard Hare, Plato. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p58

Hare, p59

R.N. Sharma, Plato: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 1991) p119

Sharma, p119.

Braunstein, and Pepin

I.M. Crombie, an Examination of Plato's Doctrines . (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962), p180

Jowett

Jowett