Gender Challenges the All American

Gender Challenges

The all American work ethic, destructive enough by itself, also packs a gender double standard"

Letty Cottin Pogrebin (20th century).

Context of the Problem

Over time, families maintained by women with no spouse present have increased dramatically, as a proportion of all families. Families, noted as a group of two or more persons who reside together; related by birth, marriage, or adoption, may be classified either as "married-couple families or as families maintained by women or men without spouses."

In March 2006, a woman maintained approximately two in ten families; and increase from one in ten 36 years earlier. Families maintained by men increased from two to seven percent during this same period.

Today, either both parents work and simultaneously care for children, or "a single parent performs both roles, and families rely on care replacement services to manage these increasing demands."

When changes in the familial arena occur, with no corresponding changes in the work place often result in a mismatch that stimulates serious consequences for family life, and health, as well as children's emotional lives. Barriers that currently challenge the single parent's progress in the workplace include what may be known as the double bind or the glass ceiling, perspectives regarding gender, and child care concerns. "In patriarchal settings," women face a double bind because, despite an acknowledgment that effective leadership can be masculine or feminine, stereotypes still paint women as less able than men."

As the quote by Pogrebin introducing this study purports, the work ethic in the U.S. "packs a gender double standard."

The American workplace dilemma, albeit may be found in areas throughout the world, as Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen points out:

Anthropologists have found that around the world whatever is considered "men's work" is almost universally given higher status than "women's work." If in one culture it is men who build houses and women who make baskets, then that culture will see house-building as more important. In another culture, perhaps right next door, the reverse may be true, and basket- weaving will have higher social status than house-building.

Statement of the Problem

Gendering in the workplace, no matter the location in the world, the researcher contends, creates limitations on women, especially those heading single parent families. The lack of, as well as the blatant need for, clarity regarding this contemporary gender challenge that contributes to the glass ceiling and/or double bind for women may be seen in comments by Carly Fiorina, former chair and CEO of Hewlett Packard. Initially when questioned about the glass ceiling, Fiornia denied barriers for women in the workplace even existed. Later, Fiornia reportedly stated she would not rather focus on barriers; however, she amended her previous statement to admit she realized gender barriers do exist in the workplace, and that in fact she and other women she knew routinely faced them.

For effective gender-equitable roles, including those in leadership, to become a reality, those designating leadership have to identify, assess barriers, while also and promoting changes to countering barriers.

Contrary to clarity and open communication regarding gender discrimination in the workplace, a number of mechanisms protect unspoken rules that govern power and privilege in this area. These constraints "operate like a psychological or political double bind, in which the rules of the relationship of the community forbid communication about oppressive practices and beliefs that contradict the 'official story' of individual and organization equity."

In consideration of contemporary workplace constraints that continue to challenge women, this study explores components contributing to the problem of gendering in the workplace and the limitations this practice for women, particularly those heading single parent families.

Significance of the Study

As the researcher hopes to one day hold a prominent position in the business world, and desires to help ensure women understand how to overcome workplace hindrances to reach their full potentials, this study enhances learning about gender discrimination in the workplace. In addition, particularly in a society where males, as well as females, experience challenges regarding employment concerns, understanding how that too frequently in the past, the double bind also doubled to adversely affect the workplace, could not only help women in the workplace, but also stimulate a more positive workplace overall. In time, in turn, the researcher hopes, enhanced understandings from this study will ultimately filter down to help families; particularly the children.

Research Question and Sub-questions

As this thesis examines components contributing to the problem of gendering in the workplace and the limitations this practice for women, particularly those heading single parent families, it addresses the following question: How can women effectively overcome gender constraints in the workplace, particularly those women heading single parent families, to help ensure they reach their full potentials personally and professionally?

To answer this primary research question, this study addresses the following sub-questions:

What challenges relating to women in the workplace must be overcome to help them succeed in the workplace?

What viewpoints currently influence gendering in the workplace?

What are some concepts that need to be challenged regarding gendering in the workplace?

Research Design and Methodology as a guide for this study, the researcher utilized the case study methodology, a form of qualitative descriptive research. To secure information for this study, the researcher conducted a methodical search through a number of sources, which included, but were not limited to: Highbeam Research and Google databases.

Organization of the Study

The following four chapters constitute the body of this study.

Chapter I: Introduction

Chapter II: Review of the Literature

Chapter III: Findings

Chapter IV: Conclusion

Chapter I: Introduction

The first chapter introduces the focus for this study, presents the context of the problem, relates the problem statement, as well as the research question(s), along with the significance of the study, and the research methodology the researcher utilized in this study.

Chapter II: Review of the Literature This study's second chapter presents information the researcher retrieved and compiled from researched articles; books; etc. To address the research question.

Chapter III: Methodology Section, Discussion, and Analysis

During the third chapter of this study, the researcher presents a comparison using women of different races; discusses information related in the literature and analyzes findings. Information in this chapter corresponds to that presented in this study's Appendix section.

Chapter IV: Conclusion

Along with relating the researcher's concluding thoughts, the fourth chapter reflects a synopsis of relevant findings from researched information.

During the Literature Review chapter, the researcher examines workplace gendering in a number of locations in the world. As this study explores limitations on women in the workplace, especially those heading single parent families, some too often unspoken concerns are heard.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The all American work ethic taught...that as their earnings and success increase, men become "more manly," while women become "less feminine"

Letty Cottin Pogrebin.

During 1960, single parents only headed approximately 9% of families in the United States.

By 1985, the number had grown to 21% of all households being headed by a single mother, with 2% headed by a single father.

Even though families have radically changed during the past few decades, some workplace practices remain stagnant; slow to respond. In the past, society presented a more clear-cut separation of male and female roles within traditional marriage. During 1960, single parents only headed approximately 9% of families in the United States.

By 1985, the number had grown to 21% of all households being headed by a single mother, with 2% headed by a single father.

This study's literature review chapter presents a sampling of information, relevant to workplace gendering, one continuing stagnant workplace practice. During this study segment, the researcher examined information regarding this study's primary focus, to ultimately relate to ways women, particularly those women heading single parent families, can effectively overcome gender constraints in the workplace to help ensure they reach their full potentials personally and professionally. The review of literature examines the three following topical themes:

Gender challenges relating to women in the workplace,

Viewpoints that currently influence gendering in the workplace, and Concepts to challenge regarding gendering in the workplace.

Gender Challenges

In the Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women, reportedly a controversial, yet at one time a best-selling book, Naomi Wolf asserts that companies carefully construct strategies to convince females to purchase their makeup, hair products and clothing. Wolf considers the companies' efforts to constitute a beauty backlash against females, and although not a conspiracy, contribute to an array of separate individual reflexes that contribute to a national mood that oppresses women.

According to Wolf, a relationship exists between female liberation and female beauty.

Wolf's research contends that a cultural backlash against feminism utilizes images of female beauty to keep women "in their place."

As women have broken through legal and material hindrances, images of female beauty have simultaneously increased. While women began to breach the power structure, Wolf notes, eating disorders increased, demand for cosmetic surgery spiraled upwards, pornography became spotlighted in the media, and women's focus on losing weight became an obsession to some. Despite having more money, power, legal recognition, in terms of how they felt about themselves physically, women in a sense reverted backwards in liberation.

Jamieson explains that the phrase Catch-22, serves as another synonym for double bind. Paula Caplan, a psychologist, notes, "Mothers are caught in a perfect Catch-22. They are supposed to be concerned with emotions and closeness in relationships, but because autonomy has been designated by the white male middle class in North America as the pinnacle of emotional health,"

Mothers in the workplace, however, who do what comes natural to them are sometimes treated as they are immature or even sick.

The gender of the leader does matter to perceivers who filter judgments to the demands of cultural expectations. "Applause from the same sensitive and collaborative leadership is more likely to go to a man than a woman."

In addition, women, particularly leaders frequently experience greater scrutiny for errors, even small ones they make, and are more likely to be criticized than men in leadership positions.

Viewpoints Regarding Genders

Rather than being of empirical validity, an ideology of gender differences reflects social and political status quo. A predictable variability in/within-gender behavior relates to factors including the person's age, his/her ethnicity, occupation, income, job status, education, personal experiences, situational demands, along with anticipated consequences. Particular beliefs, albeit, do not automatically match the behaviors men and/or women displayed across contexts and situations.

In fact, in regard to leadership, studies relating to sex differences have not confirmed any significant overall gender difference in judged leadership; however evidence does indicate connections to the cultural expectations for the leader's gender. A simplistic view of gender perceives that gender only relates to whether a person is a man for a woman. Social scientists point out, on the other hand, that gender constitutes is a multi-dimensional concept, enacted in a myriad of different ways. Chin, Lott, and Sanchez-Hucles note three models regarding the gender concept. The following three viewpoints apply to leadership in the workplace.

1. Intrasychic

2. Social Structural

3. Interpersonal

Intrasychic

The first perspective focuses on gender as an intrapsychic process, defining gender in terms of gender-role orientation. This perspective includes a person's gender schema, his/her gender identity, and gender-role traits, his/her attitudes and values. According to intrapsychic perspective, no matter the leader's biological sex, his/her gender - role orientation will influence his/her behavior (Appendix a).

Social structural

Gender, according to the social structural perspective, an ascribed status characteristic, impacts the leader's access to power and/or resources. This perspective contends that the gender of the leader constitutes the most vital aspect of his/her position, as it serves as a stimulus for others' observations, and perceptions, along with their valuations. This perspective purports that male leaders (" high status individuals in roles and went with their sex") will attain different outcomes than female leaders (" low status individuals in roles incongruent with their sex"). Findings indicate that female leaders who utilize a masculine style, or when male subordinates rate them receive more negative evaluations than male leaders (Appendix a).

Interpersonal

Interpersonal interactions between individuals, according to the third perspective, include components of the intrapsychic and social structural viewpoints. In this perspective, interactions are perceived to be a function of "gender-related beliefs and expectations both about the self (schemas) and about others (stereotypes)."

Situational clues, for instance, such as skewed gender ratios in groups, and the sex-type nature of the task, induce priming and basically make gender salient. This perception contends that the different kinds of social interactions that male and female leaders have with their male and female subordinates and supervisors, in turn, impact the outcomes each party's experiences. These processes are reportedly not as observable and/or salient as in a person's biological sex. Consequently, the sex of individuals serves as a cue and as status characteristic, activating stereotypes. A number of contextual cues, including skewed gender ratio in groups and the sex-typing of tasks moderate these processes (Appendix a).

Concepts to Challenge in Gendering

Throughout the years, according to Wolf, forces in culture have attempted to punish women seeking to gain more control over their environments and/or lives. The Beauty Myth, a dangerous link on a long chain of lies relates to the unwritten "rules" of regarding feminine behavior and attributes, and has succeeded in affecting they way women perceive themselves internally. The Beauty Myth contributed to creating an impossible standard of femininity for women. In response, in their attempts to measure up, however, many women react with increasingly obsessive behavior. Instead of investing energy to further positive goals, some women instead turn inward; focusing on physical faults and ways to correct them. Ultimately, Wolf stresses, both sexes need to challenge the media manipulation, which she contends, makes women feel insecure and unhappy with themselves.

CHAPTER III

FINDINGS

This perverse cultural dynamic

The all American work ethic] gives fathers an incentive to stay away from their families and kill themselves at work, while coercing mothers to limit their career commitment..."

Letty Cottin Pogrebin.

Pogrebin's perception, portrayed in the quote introducing this chapter, the researcher finds, appears dated. Today, as noted by data presented in this chapter, mothers and fathers appear to be committing to careers, albeit women, as findings indicate, do not always receive equal pay for equal work. For this study's research design and methodology, as noted in the introduction at the start of this study, the researcher utilized the case study methodology, a form of qualitative descriptive research, to serve as a guide for this study. To secure information for this study, the researcher conducted a methodical search through a number of sources, which included, but were not limited to Highbeam Research and Google databases. Particular emphasis was attributed to data obtained from the Department of Labor. During the research process, the researcher explored a variety of sources to address this study's research question and retrieve several generalizable truths relating to this study's focus, gender challenges. From the effort, the researcher retrieved a "pool" of evidence, and drew conclusions, ultimately contributing to and constituting this study's final chapter. The Beauty Myth feeds the rumor that the ideal woman must look a particular way. The U.S. culture traditionally considers the ideal female as "thin, tall, white and blond. Small nose, long, shiny hair, hairless limbs, big breasts, full lips, wide-set eyes, and flawless skin are thought to be close to perfect."

Due to the Beauty Myth, women who are Black, Latina, Middle Eastern, Pacific Islander, or mixed, however, and/or short, overweight, have a big nose, body hair, acne, etc. frequently experience even more challenges in the work world (Appendix C).

Figure 1 portrays the fact that families maintained by men or by women with no spouse present have grown substantially.

Figure 1: Families during March 1970

Not only has the proportion of families maintained by men or women grown dramatically over time, but there also have been remarkable changes in the work patterns among married-couple families. The share of married-couple families in which both the husband and wife had earnings increased from 46% in 1970 to 57% in 2005, while the proportion comprised of families with just the husband as an earner fell from 33% to 18%.

Figure 2: Families during March 2006

Races in the Labor Force

Black mothers currently have highest labor force participation rates

In 2006, as in the past, black mothers with children under 18 were more likely than white mothers to be in the labor force -- 76% compared with 70%.

Asian and Hispanic mothers were less likely than either black or white mothers to be labor force participants.

Figure 3 shows Mothers participation rates in labor force during 2006.

Figure 2: Comparison of Races; Mothers in Labor Force

Figure 4 shows the percentages of children who live with an employed parent.

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

The all American work ethic] in turn limits their wages and shortchanges their families

Letty Cottin Pogrebin.

Through this thesis, the researcher related a number of considerations as this study addressed the question: How can women effectively overcome gender constraints in the workplace, particularly those women heading single parent families, to help ensure they reach their full potentials personally and professionally? Challenges relating to women in the workplace that must be overcome to help them succeed in the workplace, the researcher found, included concepts contributing to the Beauty Myth, as well as viewpoints Chin, Lott, Rice, and Sanchez-Hucles note that extend beyond simple gender considerations.