Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Applied Linguistics Review

Introduction and Key Terms

In the work entitled "Introduction to Computational Linguistics: Computer-Assisted Language Learning," it is noted that variables such as "the learner's proficiency level and goals, whether the language is being learned in a foreign-language or second-language setting; aspects of the language that are often taught with the assistance of books" must all be considered in book-based learning. In language learning — and in computer-assisted language learning specifically — it is observed that "to make good use of the computer as a tool in language learning" one must understand: (1) language acquisition theory; (2) learning theory; and (3) applications and design of computer programs (Introduction to Computational Linguistics: Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 2006).

Much of what comprises CALL is "the transfer of book technology and traditional methods of language teaching to the computer" (Ibid). Simple combinations of sound and text via computer applications constitute what is known as the "audio-dictionary." CD-ROMs are used widely because of the potential size of digital files, making the CD-ROM more practical for storage purposes. It is possible to greatly enhance the reading experience of the learner through the use of hypertext and hypermedia. Programming concerns related to CALL are divided into two unique areas: (1) handling the user interface; and (2) processing user input and other data (Ibid).

Applied linguistics is defined "to denote analytic and empirical linguistic approaches for investigating topics related to second language acquisition and language use" (Ibid). The literature review that follows renders a broad survey of available scholarship relating to learning theory, language acquisition theory, and the design and application of computer programs created with the goal of enabling language learning for their users.

Text Scaffolding and Language Acquisition

The work entitled "Computer Assisted Text Scaffolding for Curriculum Access and Language Learning/Acquisition" states that the system it proposes is based on several key premises. First, "virtually all applied linguists agree that access to sufficient comprehensible input in the target language is a necessary condition for language acquisition; most applied linguists, however, also assign a role to (a) a focus on formal features of the target language, (b) development of effective learning strategies, and (c) actual use of the target language" (Cummins, 2003). Second, "formal second language teaching is relatively unsuccessful for a significant number of learners primarily as a result of impoverished input in the target language, both with respect to quality and quantity" (Cummins, 2003). Third, "target language text has the potential to provide a virtually inexhaustible supply of authentic comprehensible input for language learning if rapid access to meaning could be ensured" (Cummins, 2003).

Fourth, "current CD-ROM technology can supply the necessary supports or 'scaffolds' to make a wide range of target language text comprehensible to learners, thereby fuelling the language learning process — the more learners read in the target language, the more access they get to its vocabulary, grammar, idioms, etc., and the more language they learn" (Cummins, 2003). Cummins holds that the proposed system "could, in principle, be applied in any language learning context" (2003).

Furthermore, Cummins describes how the proposed system would serve the academic development and language learning needs of students: "When the student came to a word or phrase he/she did not understand, he/she could click on the word and obtain any or all of the following supports: (a) a dictionary definition in English; (b) a first language translation equivalent; (c) the English pronunciation of the word; (d) grammatical information related to the word or phrase; (e) idiomatic expressions; (f) cognates between the first language and English when they exist" (2003). This system, according to Cummins (2003), "would be totally self-regulated insofar as students themselves would choose the level and type of support they require." He further states that "the theory underlying this system differs from (but also complements) current approaches to both conventional language teaching and multimedia design for language learning" (Cummins, 2003). The system draws on research and theory in: (1) language learning and teaching; (2) academic achievement of ESL or minority language students; (3) appropriate ways of teaching literacy; (4) critical language awareness; (5) cognitive strategy instruction; and (6) computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and multimedia design (2003).

The work of Lusnia entitled "Teaching Teachers Long-Distance: A Paradigm-Shift for the Teacher-Planner in Mexico" describes the current situation at the Center for Teaching of Foreign Languages at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), which is "undergoing changes to provide some teacher education courses by means of distance learning" (Lusnia, 1999). Lusnia notes that "few distance programs currently exist in the area of applied linguistics" (Ibid). Practical considerations for planning include: (1) the development and design of a didactic model; (2) the setting of long- and short-term goals for the project and its teacher courses; (3) two examples of courses in progress; and (4) what positive and concrete results the project is expected to attain (Lusnia, 1999).

Distance Learning and Applied Linguistics Teacher Education

The Center for Teaching of Foreign Languages is described as "the oldest of the language departments of the six campuses" of UNAM. It has two main functions: (1) to provide language classes to approximately 10,000 university students in 14 different languages; and (2) to carry out research in the Department of Applied Linguistics (Lusnia, 1999). Distance programs have been a recognized need at UNAM because Mexico "has a shortage of prepared language teachers, which means that more often than not, teachers who are proficient in a foreign language but who have little or no formal language teacher training give classes in both the public and private sector" (Lusnia, 1999). Additionally, "the number of students receiving degrees is quite low compared to the number enrolled," suggesting a need for flexible programs such as distance or open learning options (Lusnia, 1999). Lusnia states that "this scarcity of qualified language teachers with some sort of official credential has prompted teacher trainers at the CELE to propose and plan courses for language teachers to be given via distance learning" (1999).

Six online courses are being planned and developed: (1) How Can I Learn Applied Linguistics at a Distance? An Introductory Course; (2) Linguistic Aspects for Communicative Approaches; (3) Reading Comprehension; (4) Introduction to Applied Linguistics; (5) Applied Linguistics II; and (6) Writing for English Teachers (Lusnia, 1999). An integral part of the planning is "the construction of a didactic model for distance education. A didactic model essentially involves the way in which all the different participants establish communication in order to reach the proposed objectives of a program or course — for example, the sending and reception of course materials or the organization of tutorials" (Lusnia, 1999). The model is being constructed collaboratively "with the multi-disciplinary participation of the CELE teachers who are planning the courses, a librarian, on-site advisors, a graphic designer, and a computer specialist." This inclusion of different types of experts is intended to create "a model which includes many perspectives and considers different proposals" (Lusnia, 1999), while recognizing that "every institution and its context determine the characteristics of the model" (1999).

In the work entitled "ESL Students' Computer-Mediated Communication Practices: Context Configuration," Shin (2006) states that "research studies of computer-mediated communication (CMC) use in language education have addressed overall aspects of context in language learning and teaching, including technologies, linguistic features, pedagogy, curriculum, social materials, and social discourses on CMC" (Belz, 2003; Belz & Muller-Hartmann, 2003; Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995, 2000; Kinginger, Gourves-Hayworth & Simpson, 1999; Kramsch & Thorne, 2002; Meskill & Anthony, 2005; Meskill & Ranglova, 2000, 2003; Ware, 2005). These layers of context demonstrate that the occurrence of social interactions in language learning must be understood in relation to not only immediate situational contexts but also the broad cultural and social contexts shaping those situations (Shin, 2006).

Shin also notes that the CMC literature "illustrates shifts of focus to different layers of context." Early research relating to CMC in language learning examined the linguistic content of CMC text in order to understand how language learners could improve certain communication functions and acquire linguistic features through CMC activities (Blake, 2000; Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995; Ortega, 1997; Pellettieri, 2000; Smith, 2000; Sotillo, 2000; Toyoda & Harrison, 2002; Tudini, 2003; Warschauer, 1996). More recent studies of telecollaborative projects have examined "how language learners jointly construct the contexts of their CMC activities, as part of their focus on tensions among intercultural communication partners" (Belz, 2003; Kramsch & Thorne, 2002; O'Dowd, 2003; Ware, 2000; Ware & Kramsch, 2005).