Cultural Inequities Facing Special Needs Students in Education

Introduction

Social and cultural prejudice is a problem that sits at the center of debate in modern society. All forms of social prejudice and discrimination tend to create situations in which individuals experience unfair and discriminatory biases, resulting in their marginalization within the education system and in society at large. The consequences of prejudice manifest in a number of serious societal and psycho-social problems — not least of which is the feeling of being deprived, isolated, or discriminated against, with all the concomitant negative repercussions that typically follow.

Social bias and prejudice become even more problematic when imposed on those who experience physical and mental differences from the norms and perceived standards of society. People with disabilities, and those who fall under the category of special needs in education, are often the focus of multiple forms of prejudice. These prejudices are compounded by additional factors such as class and race.

The term commonly used to describe this form of bias is ableism. Ableism is described as "a form of discrimination or social prejudice against people with disabilities" (Disablism). This form of prejudice is also referred to as disability discrimination, physicalism, handicapism, and disability oppression (Disablism).

What is particularly significant in terms of the social and cultural perceptions that affect those with special needs are the assumptions and stereotypes applied to those who deviate from the ideal standards and norms of society. This refers to the "ableist" worldview in which "the able-bodied are the norm in society, and people who have disabilities must either strive to become that norm or should keep their distance from able-bodied people" (Disablism). In other words, disability or deviance from the norm is seen as intrinsically negative — something to be avoided or overcome. As one study notes, "The ableist worldview holds that disability is an error, a mistake, or a failing, rather than a simple consequence of human diversity, akin to race, ethnicity, sexual orientation or gender" (Disablism). An understanding of the reality of diversity and difference, and its acceptance, is therefore essential to addressing these biases.

As many scholars observe, these biases represent a pattern of prejudice that places the disadvantaged and the special needs student in a diminished light. In more sociological terms, ableism creates:

"A network of beliefs, processes and practices that produces a particular kind of self and body — the corporeal standard that is projected as the perfect, species-typical, and therefore essential and fully human. Disability is then cast as a diminished state of being human." (Wolbring, 2006)

In summary, ableism is a form of discrimination and marginalization. One must also take into account that actual physical or mental differences intersect with other values and prejudices in society — for example, biases arising from race, ethnicity, class, and gender. This intersection exacerbates the situation for the special needs student. The following discussion highlights some of these aspects and attempts to provide an overview of the ways in which cultural perceptions affect special needs students and how these inequities might be remedied.

Race and Ethnicity

The issue of race and ethnicity intersects directly with perceptions of disability. This intersection is captured in what is known as the "Double Whammy" theory, put forward by Marshall (1987). This theory is grounded in observations of "clients of color who encountered a double dose of discrimination based on racial prejudice and ability bias." This research is extended in numerous studies, including Current Issues and Trends in Special Education: Research, Technology, and Teacher Preparation by Festus E. Obiakor (2010).

That research was based on a sample of African Americans with disabilities within the rehabilitation counseling system. The findings can also be applied to culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in educational settings. As Obiakor (2010) argues, "CLD students in the current educational system often deal with cultural and linguistic discrimination, and at the same time, they must face discrimination based on cognitive or physical disabilities" (p. 112). These students are therefore marginalized on the basis of both their special needs and their racial or ethnic identity. As a result, research finds that these students are less likely to receive help, encouragement, or recognition (Obiakor, 2010, p. 114).

This connects to the broader view that "ableism is reinforced by legal, educational, and social structures" (Fierros, 2006). This perspective suggests that the educational philosophy of separate placement for special needs students is itself a form of discrimination and marginalization. It relates to arguments made by advocates of the least restrictive environment (LRE) clause of the U.S. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which some critics see used as a "safety valve for specialized instruction and separate placement" (Obiakor, 2010, p. 114). LRE refers to the principle of placing students with disabilities in the least restrictive learning environment possible — one that provides opportunities equal to those available to non-disabled students, including equal access to curricular and extracurricular activities.

Critics note, however, that significant prejudice persists in the educational environment despite such legislation. This relates to concerns about "a lack of empirical support for inclusion, and the inability of general education teachers to individualize instruction to adequately meet the needs of students with special needs" (Obiakor, 2010, p. 114).

This leads to the conclusion that considerable prejudice still exists among some teachers and within sectors of the educational establishment — an issue that requires urgent attention. The problem of color-based bias compounds the issue of discrimination against special needs students. As Obiakor (2010) emphasizes, "Since the passage of IDEA in 1990, numerous researchers have explored the placement patterns of students of color with special needs, finding inappropriate or restrictive placements that systematically segregate students from regular education settings" (Fierros, 2006). This clearly illustrates that many special needs students are also marginalized on the basis of race.

Numerous reports confirm that disabled students are negatively affected by racial and ethnic factors. For example, Coutinho and Repp (1999) found that approximately sixty percent of special needs students were taught outside the regular classroom (Fierros, 2006). It has also been found that "the negative consequences of the separate special education system are greater for students from racial minorities" (Lipsky and Gartner, 1997, p. 33). In many studies, students of color with disabilities are described as "voiceless" (Fierros, 2006). This implies that laws intended to protect these students have not been effective in addressing the double exposure to racism and disability bias. As Fierros (2006) states, "because of institutional ableism's hold on our society, it is unlikely that any legal remedy will eliminate the educational inequity faced by students with disabilities." This remains an issue that demands the focused attention of the teaching profession and a reexamination of educator perceptions.

As a New Zealand study points out, "the main problem in the sector was poor attitudes. Too many schools turned away children with special needs or did not include them in regular school activities because of prejudices" (Cheng, 2010). Teachers and educators are not immune to the social and cultural prejudices of the wider society, and these perceptions can filter into the classroom, adversely affecting how special needs students are treated and perceived.

Conclusion

This guidance illustrates the kind of proactive attention teachers should give to special needs students. It also underscores the importance of teacher perceptions in creating a more equitable and unprejudiced learning environment.

The problem of unfair or prejudiced treatment of disadvantaged and special needs students requires the sensitivity and responsible action of both teachers and the broader educational community. That a serious situation exists is reflected in the following observation about ableism: "Like racism and sexism, ableism is embedded within our society at a root level and combating it requires ongoing education about how a person's uniqueness can counteract cultural myths about people with disabilities" (Fierros, 2006). The view — still prevalent in some sectors of contemporary society — that persons with disabilities are "tolerated but not allowed to participate fully in society" (Obiakor, 2010, p. 112) is not acceptable and demands urgent attention.

Fierros poses the central question for this subject: "The question, of course, is how to do that — how to combat fear and ignorance about perceived differences?" (Fierros, 2006). As noted in the introduction, reducing cultural inequality requires, first and foremost, an understanding and genuine acceptance of human diversity and difference. A significant part of the answer lies in the attitudes and perceptions of classroom teachers — and in the degree to which they are willing and able to redress, and ultimately help eradicate, the cultural inequalities faced by special needs students.