Robert K. Merton's Strain Theory and Deviance in Criminology

Historical Context and Biographical Background

Robert K. Merton is considered one of the most significant sociologists of modern times, and his contributions to criminology are equally substantial. He influenced fields as diverse as the natural sciences, humanities, law, political theory, economics, and anthropology (Cole, 2004, p. 37). Merton introduced numerous concepts, including anomie, deviant behavior, the self-fulfilling prophecy, strain, middle-range theory, and focused group behavior, and he is recognized largely because of these innovations.

Merton's inspiration was rooted in his own childhood. He was born on July 5, 1910, in the slums of South Philadelphia, the son of Jewish immigrants. His father ran a small dairy shop near their home. Although Merton did not grow up in a wealthy family, he was acutely aware of the cultural resources surrounding him — among them the Philadelphia Orchestra at the Academy of Music, low-priced seats to hear Leopold Stokowski conduct, and the Carnegie Library (Bivens, 2004). His birth name was Meyer R. Scholnick; he changed it at the age of fourteen while performing magic tricks at parties (Gieryn, 2004, p. 90). His intellectual ability earned him a scholarship to Temple University, opening a path out of the environment in which he had grown up.

During his undergraduate studies, Merton worked as a research assistant to George Simpson, who first introduced him to sociology and to influential figures such as Ralph Bunche and Franklin Frazier. Simpson also introduced him to Pitirim Sorokin, the founding chairman of Harvard University's sociology department. After completing his undergraduate degree, Merton received a fellowship to attend Harvard for graduate study. Sorokin soon hired him as a research assistant, and by Merton's second year they were publishing together. While at Harvard, Merton read widely and was shaped by thinkers including Sarton, Sorokin, L. J. Henderson, and Talcott Parsons. A course he took with Parsons deepened his sociological thinking and contributed to Parsons's landmark work The Structure of Social Action (Calhoun, 2003).

Merton's early essays, written and published during the Great Depression, include "Social Structure and Anomie" (1938). These initial writings clearly reflect the distress of the era. During this period, Merton became attuned to power imbalances and the unequal distribution of opportunities for success. The Great Depression devastated the economy, left millions unemployed, and forced many families from their homes into makeshift settlements known as Hoovervilles (Cole and Smith, 2002). However, approximately 40% of the population remained largely unaffected by the economic crisis (Bernanke, 1995, p. 119). Merton developed his hypothesis of anomie during this phase of depression and social imbalance. The country was simultaneously grappling with the economic collapse and large waves of immigrant arrivals (Bivens, 2004).

These difficult conditions led Merton to recognize that only certain groups of people could realistically achieve the American Dream. He observed the same unequal distribution of wealth among immigrants that he had witnessed firsthand in his childhood. His understanding that the American Dream was not equally attainable for all found expression in his famous essay "Social Structure and Anomie" (1938), which became a landmark text across several fields, including criminology. The essay gained added significance when Merton chose to extend his theory of anomie after engaging with Émile Durkheim's earlier theory of anomie.