The ARISE Gang Prevention Program and Social Disorganization Theory

¶ … Gang Prevention Program

"Gangs contain bright boys who do well, bright boys who do less well, and dull boys who pass, dull boys who fail, and illiterates"

(Garabedian & . Gibbons, 2005, p. 26).

In regard to gangs, one never knows what may happen. In the article, "Gang grief: violence wounds teens and communities," Melissa Klein (2009) reports that Chantelle S., a 15-year-old from New York City relates that at times, students become fearful of what may happen when fights break out between rival groups in her high school. These fight lead to lockdowns with increased security in the school. Chantelle said: "It's kind of scary because you never know what can happen" (Chantelle, as cited in Klein, ¶ 1). During this paper, the researcher examines the ARISE Gang Prevention Program, one contemporary method of gang prevention, which confronts some of the scary concerns gangs embellish, and investigates the theoretical causes of the program, focusing on Social Disorganization theory.

To help empower youth to resist the powerful pull of gangs, ARISE, a nonprofit foundation, established in 1986 by Susan and Edmund Benson, provides powerful prevention tools to help youth resist becoming involved in gangs. Mike Meacham, Forensic Social Worker at Valdosta State University, and Tony Stokes, co-author (2008), assert that youth join gangs for a myriad of reasons. In the article, "The life development of gang members: Interventions at various stages," Meacham and Stokes (2008) explain that when middle and secondary school youth enter puberty and are working through adolescence, they may likely be seduced by the lure of gang membership. As these youth, at risk for gangs, experience strong conflicting needs of independence and of belonging, they may need help to equip them to know how to make healthy choices in their lives; to resist the lure of gang involvement.

Statement of the Problem

The Bloods, one the leading gangs in the U.S., founded in Los Angeles, Klein (2009) explains, are enemies of the Crips, another L.A.-based gang. At the age of 14, at the enticement of her cousins, members of the Bloods at that time, Jon Amosa, a Seattle teen, joined a local chapter of the Bloods. For her initiation rite, other gang member "jumped" or beat Amosa in. Once in the Bloods, Amosa began to beat up members of rival gangs. Amosa said: "Whatever my 'big homey,' or the older guy, whatever they told me to do, I'd go do it, no questions asked (Amosa, as cited in Klein, ¶ 2). Along with regularly fighting, Amosa sold and abused illegal drugs. Amosa left the gang after becoming more involved in his church.

Amosa, who was 18 in 2008, said that even though Rap stars regularly brag about being a "gangsta" or thug, being in a game is not cool. "I've lost a lot of friends to gang violence, a lot of family members too," Amosa says. "Really, it's not worth it" (Amosa, as cited in Klein, ¶ 3). When Amosa became more involved in his church, he left the Bloods. Klein reports that during an eight-month period in 2007, gang violence claimed the lives of six teens in the Seattle area. An undetermined number of youth were injured during this same period. Gang violence may affect entire communities, not just the individuals involved in gangs. Other gang related incidents across the U.S. include the following:

1. Officials in Hartford. Connecticut a curfew for teens after 11 people were shot during a bloody weekend. The victims of shootings, believed to be gang-related, included a

7-year-old boy,

2. After gang member was ordered to fire at the house where a 2-year-old girl. was staying with her grandparents, according to court testimony, the Kansas City, Kansas

teen was sentenced to life in prison for the child's murder.

3. In Nyack, New York, north of New York City, a gang brawl erupted when a high school student yanked a rival gang colored bandana off the neck of another student.

4. Although the most severe gang activity occurs in larger cities such as Chicago, Los

Angeles, and New York, gang activity also occurs in suburbs and small town, James

C. Howell, senior research associate at the National Youth Gang Center, reports

5. The 2006 National Youth Gang Survey reveals that a total of 785,000 members belong to the approximately 26,500 youth gangs exist in the United States. Studies find that in large urban areas, gang members conduct a large share of the violent crimes teens commit. During 1998 in Seattle, gang members committed 85% of the robberies by teens.

6. One study reports that 8% of 12- to 17-year-olds joined a gang during their middle or high school years. In 2005, approximately 25% of students reported the existence of gangs in their schools, a rise of 8% from 1999. Gang members do not only include boys. According to experts, females make up approximately 33% of gang members.

Other Efforts to Deal with Gangs

Suppression techniques may be one of the best ways to combat gang activity and gang violence, Gabriel Morales (2006) purports. Morales has worked in the area of gang prevention and intervention, both in the adult and juvenile system, for over 25 years. In chapter four, "Gang Suppression," of his book, Varrio Warfare: Violence in the Latino Community, Gabriel Morales, known as the "Best Expert at Keeping Kids Off the Street" according to Seattle Weekly, explains that a number of law enforcement efforts exist to counter gang activity. These include, but are not limited to:

Stay out of Drug Area (SODA): Constitutes sweeps where gang activity occurs; considered effective.

Problem Oriented Policing (POP): May target particular areas or known gang hangouts (Morales, 2006).

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Methods of Prevention

Morales (2006) presents the following definitions, adopted by the CA State Anti-Gang Coordinating Committee. Definitions may vary in different states.

Definition of "Criminal Street Gang"

Any organization, association or group of three or more persons, whether formal or informal, which has continuity of purpose, seeks a group identity, and has members who individually or collectively engage in or have engaged in a pattern of criminal activity. (Reference section

186.22(f) of the California Penal Code). (Morales, 2006, Definition of "Criminal

section)

Definition of "Gang-Related" Crime

When the suspect or the victim of the incident is a known member of a gang, or there is reliable information indicating that a gang member committed the offense. (Morales, 2006, Definition of "Gang-Related"… section)

Definition of "Gang Member"

An individual who:

Actively participates in a criminal street gang; has knowledge that its members engage in, or have engaged in, a pattern of criminal gang activity, and willfully promotes, futures, or assists in any criminal conduct by members of the gang. (Reference Section 186.22 of the California Penal Code). (Morales, 2006, Definition of "Gang…" section)

Identification Criteria

An individual is identified as a gang member based on the following criteria:

Admits gang membership or association.

Is observed to associate on a regular basis with known gang members.

Has tattoos indicating gang membership.

Wears gang clothing, symbols, etc., to identify with a specific gang.

Is in a photograph with known gang members and/or using gang-related hand signs.

Name is on a gang document, hit list, or gang-related graffiti.

Is identified as a gang member by a reliable source.

Arrested in the company of identified gang members or associates.

Corresponds with known gang members or writes and/or receives correspondence about gang activities.

Writes about gangs (graffiti) on walls, books, paper, etc.

The factors listed above are guidelines only and one factor or a combination of factors may be used in assisting with gang identification. (Morales, 2006, Identification Criteria section)

ARISE

ARISE utilizes evidence-based, interactive, life skills that at risk youth may readily understand; especially youth experiencing reading and learning disabilities. ARISE arms at risk youth with practical knowledge to help empower them before gangs start to solicit them. "According to ARISE, a variety of reasons influence teens to join gangs. Some youth join gangs because they seek prestige and excitement; while [they] reportedly desire a sense of belonging, protection or income" (ARISE as a gang prevention…, 2007, ¶ 1). ARISE contends that similarly, a number of factors help influence and shield youth from becoming gang members.

ARISE counters gang participation in numerous ways. "ARISE has developed life skill curricula with over 260 practical life skill lessons, such as anger and conflict management, the importance of a staying in school, finding and keeping a job, self-esteem, healthy living, graffiti avoidance and more (ARISE as a gang prevention…, 2007, ¶ 2). According to the philosophy ARISE adheres to, when youth invest their free time in positive activities, they become better able to resist the lure to join gangs. Along with giving youth a sense of relieving boredom and giving youth a sense of purpose, after-school programs, sports, and activities connect youth with others in positive ways.

ARISE asserts that the lessons youth learn in their classes relate vital information to help them make healthy life choices. Being armed with practical knowledge, youth become better able to resist recruitment into gangs. In addition, "youth will learn how to find legitimate employment and how to resist drugs, guns, and conflict. Each lesson contains all the needed background information on the topic as well as multiple engaging, fun activities" (ARISE as a gang prevention…, 2007, ¶ 3). As no one is born with the knowledge how the world actually works, Susan and Edmund F. Benson, ARISE Founders. Stress, each generation has to teach the basic "know-how" to each new generation.

ARISE stresses that it is vital to help youth before gangs start to solicit them. They provide resources to empower youth of all ages; with curricula specifically designed to be age appropriate. According to ARISE, one cannot start implementing a gang prevention program too early or too late (ARISE as a gang prevention…, 2007). ARISE relates its Vision and Mission Statement as:

ARISE Vision - All children, youth and adults require life skills to successfully function in the world today. Because life skills are not hereditary, they must be taught.

ARISE Mission Statement - To introduce valuable life skills lessons to at-risk youth, enabling these young women/men to achieve their highest potential as law abiding citizens. (ARISE foundation, 2009)

ARISE Gang Prevention Program

Along with mentoring troubled youth, and providing valuable life-skill lessons to address their needs. ARISE trains instructors to mentor these youth, as well as how to effectively teach their published materials. ARISE provides these services in various settings such as after school programs or in churches. "We offer onsite instruction to the staff in how to use the ARISE curriculum and instructional ARISE formula in order to receive the maximum benefits from the curriculum (ARISE as a gang prevention…, 2007, ¶ 5)." The Life-Management Skills Instructor is meticulously trained so he/she possess complete knowledge on how to best utilize the ARISE curriculum. Figure 1 portrays a sampling of "ingredients" that ARISE utilizes to empower youth.

Figure 1: Sampling of Ingredients ARISE Implements (The ARISE recipe…, 2009)

Each of the trainees teaching ARISE learn how to:

How to keep out of control students in control, lead group discussions, including brainstorming and competently manage group activities.

History

The article, "Arise Life-Management Skills Program. A Five-Year Evaluation," (N.d.) explains that the ARISE Foundation, a not-for profit educational foundation established in 1986, primarily purposes to give at-risk youths the life management skills and knowledge society demands they must possess. ARISE Foundation began with an elementary school program in Miami Dade County public schools. In time, ARISE has expanded into a number of alternative schools and juvenile justice facilities in Florida. One program, The Secrets of Success (SOS) program "provides at-risk populations with the information, know-how and guidance they need to survive and succeed" (Arise Life-Management…N.d., p. 1). The SOS program includes more than 40 life management skills curricula for pre-kindergarten through 12th grade. Two independent reviewers/researchers from the University of Miami (Florida) and from Queen's University (Northern Ireland) have evaluated the SOS program, with the intent:

1. To examine "success" rates among various groups of learners

2. To monitor learner knowledge of program components closely. (Arise Life-Management…N.d., p. 1)

Over a five-year period, evaluation data from the University of Miami (Florida) and from Queen's University (Northern Ireland) revealed the participants experienced significant improvement in knowledge of issues the program covered, including:

Anger management, drugs and alcohol avoidance goal setting,

Violence reduction, and other vital life management skills. (Arise Life-Management…N.d.)

Design

The article, "ARISE psychological models," (2009) asserts that ARISE life-skills programs are based on three psychological models:

1. Social Learning Theory and Self-Efficacy Training

2. Cognitive Behavioral Model

3. Information Processing Model (ARISE psychological, 2009, ¶ 1).

Social Learning Theory and Self-Efficacy Training (Albert Bandura) stresses:

Learning through imitation and developing self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is belief in one's own ability to succeed. The ARISE program helps high risk youth develop appropriate social behaviors and belief in their ability to succeed in school, at home, and in the community. The youngsters develop and "I can" rather than "I can't" perspective (ARISE psychological, 2009, ¶ 2).

Cognitive Behavioral Model (Donald Meichenbaum) teaches

At-risk youth how to regulate and monitor their behavior by telling themselves what to do, asking themselves questions, and evaluating themselves. They learn how to verbalize and think through problems they encounter with other individuals in school, at home, and in the community (ARISE psychological, 2009, ¶ 3).

Information Processing Model (Robert Sternberg) also teaches:

Disadvantaged children how to be better problem solvers by understanding the situation before acting. They learn how to make good choices and stick by them. Additionally, they learn how to avoid bad situations and think about consequences. (ARISE psychological, 2009, ¶ 4)

Goals and Objectives

The study, "New evidence on the monetary value of saving one high-risk youth," (2009) asserts conducted by Professor Mark A. Cohen, Vanderbilt University, and Professor Alex R. Piquero, University of Maryland, estimates the costs that crimes by high risk youth impose on society. Cohen and Piquero utilize new comprehensive estimates of the costs of individual crimes, as well as, contemporary estimates regarding the underlying offending rate for high risk juvenile offenders. This study stresses why it is vital to target high-risk youth. Cohen's study "Year-by-Year Costs Imposed by High Risk Offenders," additionally reveals that "the cost of one offender with at least six police contacts from childhood to age 32 totals $3,172,998 in 2007 dollars" (New evidence…, 2009, p. 6). These figures confirm that saving one child from crime consequently saves taxpayers more than $3 million dollars.

Even though interest in crime prevention through early youth interventions exists, the standard U.S. response to the crime problem, especially among juveniles, does not reflect this interest. Instead, the trend has included increasing resources allocated toward punishment. Prevention and treatment, however, are what are actually needed. Research indicates that if these offenders are "identified early and correctly and provided with prevention and treatment resources early in the life course, their criminal activity may be curtailed" (New evidence…, 2009, p. 7). Too little attention, research also confirms, has been invested in costs that criminal activity by youth costs society.

The article, "New evidence on the monetary value of saving one high-risk youth," (2009) asserts that established in 1986, ARISE has trained and certified over 5,000 Instructors who have taught in excess of 4,000,000 hours of ARISE life skills lessons. ARISE is a leader in the development and design of interactive life-management skills lessons for at-risk youth and staff training. Since 1996, ARISE curricula and staff training has been used statewide in the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice facilities and over 100 Washington DC community-based organizations, Department of Youth Services, Metropolitan Police School Resource Officers, and Faith-Based Groups. In addition, ARISE social skills curricula are used in public, alternative and charter schools, the Salvation Army, Arnold Schwarzenegger's After-School All-Stars, and other organizations in the United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, England, Canada, Australia, Bahamas, Bermuda, New Zealand, Bosnia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia (New evidence…, 2009, p. 7).

Target Population

The article, "New evidence on the monetary value of saving one high-risk youth," (2009) asserts that in five years, ARISE enlisted more than 100 organizations throughout the district into the ARISE Life Management Skills program. These organizations included public/charter schools, Metropolitan Police officers, and the Youth Service Center. Each week, ARISE reaches approximately 1,000 young men and women each week in The Washington D.C. area; some in detention facilities and some freshly released.

ARISE has a number of materials available to reach youth of all ages. The curricula have been specifically designed to be age appropriate. We have many different materials available for pre-K, K-grade 1, grades 2-3, grades 4-5, middle school, and teen/young adult. It is never too early or too late to start a gang prevention program. (ARISE as a gang…, ¶ 4).

Other Info

The Web publication, published by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, "Gang Prevention and Intervention Strategies," presents the following list of steps to help develop and implement an effective strategy to address youth gang problems:

1. Acknowledge the problem exists.

2. Accurately and systematically assess the problem. Involve representatives from law enforcement, schools, probation, youth agencies, former gang members, grassroots organizations, government officials, and other youth invested stakeholders. Track Internet information relating gangs and their activities.

3. Based on a unified understanding of the primary concepts and the assessment of the problem/s, establish relevant goals and objectives. Simultaneously, focus on changes desired for the affected community.

4. As the law enforcement community positions itself to provide leadership in gang prevention, establish a clear articulation; with rationale to assign responsibilities to participating agencies; appropriately coordinating relevant services and activities (Gang Prevention and…," 2007)

5. In combating the gang problem, the most effective include strategies that combine prevention, intervention, and suppression. "Providing youth-at-risk, gang-involved youth and especially those who wish to leave gangs with pro-social skills training, educational and job opportunities for a healthy lifestyle must be an integral component of any prevention/intervention program" ("Gang Prevention and…," 2007, Conclusion and Recommendation Section, ¶ 9).

6. Increase the awareness of the parents and teachers of at-risk and gang-involved youth of gang problems; particularly the prevention and counseling and support for effective intervention.

7. To enable the implementation of collaborative, interrelated strategies of formal and informal social control, consider collecting ongoing data collection; utilizing community-wide surveys, self-reports of youth, along with official records that monitor and reveal of gang-related information.

8. Provide adequate resources, along with funds for their proper allocation.

9. Include an evaluation component to increase knowledge of gang activities, along with components contributing to developing effective programs and strategies to prevent youth from joining gangs (Gang Prevention and…," 2007).

Criminology Theory

Researchers and theorists propose a myriad of various addressing why people commit crime and the factors associated with the types of crimes committed. Table 1 depeicts many of the various criminology theories, along with the primary points each theory proposes, as well as the theorists/researcher/s for each theory.

Table 1: Criminological Theory Summaries (adapted from: Cullen & Agnew, 2002).

Theory

Main Points

Theorists / Researchers

Classical

Crime occurs when the benefits outweigh the costs; when people pursue self-interest in the absence of effective punishments. Crime is a free-willed choice.

Beccaria

Positivist

Crime caused or determined. Lombroso emphasized biological deficiencies; later scholars emphasized psychological and sociological factors. Use science to determine the factors associated with crime.

Lombroso

Guerry

Quetelet

Individual Trait

Criminals differ from noncriminals on numerous biological and psychological traits; which cause crime in interaction with the social environment.

Glueck & Glueck

Mednick

Caspi

Moffitt

Social Disorganization

Disorganized communities cause crime because informal social controls break down and criminal cultures emerge; these communities lack collective efficacy to fight crime and disorder.

Shaw & McKay

Sampson

Bursik & Grasmick

Differential Association

Social Learning

Subcultural

Crime learned through associations with criminal definitions. The definitions might be generally approving of criminal conduct or be neutralizations justifying crime only under certain circumstances. Interacting with antisocial peers is a major cause of crime. Criminal behavior will be repeated and become chronic if reinforced. When criminal subcultures exist, then many individuals can learn to commit crime in one location and crime rates -- including violence -- may become very high.

Sutherland & Cressey

Sykes & Matza

Akers

Wolfgang & Ferracuti

Anderson

Anomie

Institutional-Anomie

The gap between the American Dream's goal of economic success and the opportunity to obtain this goal creates structural strain. Norms weaken and 'anomie' ensues, thus creating high crime rates. When other social institutions (such as the family) are weak to begin with or also weakened by the American Dream, the economic institution is dominant. When such an institutional imbalance exists, as in the U.S., ten crime rates are very high.

Merton

Messner & Rosenfeld

Strain

General Strain

When individuals cannot obtain success goals (money, status in school), they experience strain or pressure. Under certain conditions, they are likely to respond to this strain through crime. The strains leading to crime, however, may not only be linked to goal blockage (or deprivation of valued stimuli) but also to the presentation of noxious stimuli and the taking away of valued stimuli. Crime is a more likely response to strain when it results in negative affect (anger and frustration).

Cohen

Cloward & Ohlin

Agnew

Control

General Theory of Crime

Control Balance

Power Control

Asks the question, "Why don't people commit crime?" They assume that criminal motivation is widespread. They key factor in crime causation is thus the presence or absence of control. These controls or containment might be rooted in relationships (e.g., social bonds) or be internal (e.g., self-control). Exposure to control also might differ by social location and by the historical period, such as the changing level and type of control given to males and females.

Cohen

Cloward & Ohlin

Agnew

Rational Choice

Deterrence

Building on classical theory, crime is seen as a choice that is influenced by its costs and benefits -- that is, by its "rationality." Crime will be more likely to be deterred if its costs are raised (e.g., more effort required, more punishment applied), especially if the costs are certain and immediate. Information about the costs and benefits of crime can be obtained by direct experiences with punishment and punishment avoidance, and indirectly by observing whether others who offend are punished or avoid punishment.

Stafford & Warr

Patternoster

Cornish & Clarke

Matsueda

Routine Activities

Crime occurs when there is an intersection in time and space of a motivated offender, an attractive target, and a lack of capable guardianship. People's daily routine activities affect the likelihood they will be an attractive target who encounters an offender in a situation where no effective guardianship is present. Changes in routine activities in society (e.g., women working) can affect crime rates.

Cohen & Felson

Labeling

Reintegrative Shaming

People become stabilized in criminal roles when labeled as criminal; stigmatized, develop criminal identities, sent to prison, and excluded from conventional roles. Reintegrative responses less likely to create defiance and a commitment to crime.

Lemert

Matsueda

Braithwaite

Sherman

Critical

Inequality in power and material well-being create conditions leading to street crime and corporate crime. Capitalism and its market economy are especially criminogenic; create vast inequality that impoverishes many and provides opportunities for powerful to exploit.

Bonger

Quinney

Greenberg

Currie

Colvin

Peacemaking

Crime caused by suffering; linked to injustice rooted in inequality and daily personal acts of harm. Making "war on crime" will not work. Making peace constitutes the solution to crime.

Quinney

Feminism

Crime cannot be understood without considering gender. Crime is shaped by the different social experiences of and power is exercised by men and women. Patriarchy is a broad structure that shapes gender-related experiences and power. Men may use crime to exert control over women and to demonstrate masculinity; to show they are "men" in a way consistent with societal ideals of masculinity.

Adler

Daly

Chesney-Lind

Messerschmidt

Developmental

Life Course

Crime causation, a developmental process, starts before birth and continues throughout the life course. Individual factors interact with social factors to determine the onset, length, and end of criminal careers. The key theoretical issues involve continuity and change in crime. Some theories predict continuity across the life course; others predict continuity for some offenders and change for other offenders; and some predict continuity and change for the same offenders.

Moffitt

Sampson & Laub

Integrated

These theories use components from other theories; usually strain, control, and social learning, to create a new theory that explains crime. They often are life-course theories, arguing that causes of crime occur in a sequence across time.

Elliott

Thornberry

Tittle

Cullen

Social Disorganization Theory

All contemporary criminological theory may be traced back to Social Disorganization

Theory, Walter Thabit (2006) asserts in the article, "How did East New York become a Ghetto."

Social Disorganization Theory originates in the study of ecology, "the examination of relations between an organism and its environment. In criminology, social disorganization is usually treated as both perspective and theory" (Thabit, ¶ 1). Although social disorganization proves challenging to define, it essentially denotes the failure of social institutions or social organizations, such as schools, businesses, law enforcement entities, real estate groups, etc., in particular communities and/or neighborhoods. In the journal article, "New Directions in Social Disorganization Theory," Charis E. Kubrin and Ronald Weitzer (2003) address a number of problems they perceive in social one disorganization theory. They also chart several reportedly promising new directions this particular criminology theory. According to Kubrin and Weitzer, "Social disorganization theory focuses on the relationship between neighborhood structure, social control, and crime" (p. 374). Social disorganization theory, contrary to some other theories which center on "kinds of people" explanations for crime, focuses on ways that "kinds of places" affect crime; particularly, how various types of neighborhoods may create favorable or unfavorable conditions that attribute to crime and delinquency. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay initially advanced this theory; noting that high delinquency rates persisted in particular areas. These authors, according to Kubrin and Weitzer contend:

Social disorganization refers to the inability of a community to realize common goals and solve chronic problems. According to the theory, poverty, residential mobility, ethnic heterogeneity, and weak social networks decrease a neighborhood's capacity to control the behavior of people in public, and hence increase the likelihood of crime. (Kubrin and Weitzer, 2008, p. 374)

The neighborhood mechanisms that help reduce crime and disorder prove central to social disorganization therapy. Basically, "early social disorganization studies assumed that social ties and social control shaped neighborhood crime rates" (Kubrin and Weitzer, 2008, p. 376). At one time, social disorganization theory concluded that neighborhood ecological conditions contoured crime rates more than the uniqueness of individual residents. Favor for this particular theory dissipated later, however, experienced a comeback in the past two decades, which has contributed to the increase in the literature relating to the social disorganization theory.