American Society and the US Withdrawal from Vietnam, 1968–1973

Introduction

The significance and impact of the Vietnam War on the social fabric and people of the United States is a subject of continual discussion and media analysis. As one critic observes: "For many Americans, the Vietnam War is ancient history, notorious but irrelevant. Yet the war and its consequences affected foreign policy for years, and still do... The deployment to Bosnia, bombing of Serbia, and deployment to Kosovo again raised fears of 'another Vietnam.'" (Attarian 2000, p. 288) This reflects the way in which the war shaped the national psyche for many years and affected how Americans saw themselves and their role in the international arena — a consequence closely tied to the perceived failure of the United States to achieve a decisive victory in the conflict.

There are a wide range of differing, and often antagonistic, views about the reasons for the American withdrawal from Vietnam. This debate is closely linked to broader arguments for and against America's involvement in the region in the first place. While some critics view the eventual US retreat as a direct consequence of social and public pressure at home, others deny that this was the central reason for the decision to leave Vietnam.

There is a general consensus in scholarly research that the decision to leave Vietnam was far more complex than any single cause. From one point of view, the central causative factors were political: there was a fear of escalating the war in an already tense Cold War environment. Others point to party politics and fears about upcoming elections as additional factors in the decision to reduce military action.

While these arguments and debates will be examined in this paper, the literature makes clear that America's actions in the final years of the war resulted from a combination of factors, influences, and pressures, as well as projections about the necessity of further escalation. The central focus of this paper, however, is on the role that American society played in the military and governmental decision to cease operations in Vietnam — and while all factors must be acknowledged, the social dimension receives primary attention here.

Historical Overview

The way in which the Vietnam War divided the nation and created pockets of both opposition and approval has been well documented in scholarly articles and the popular media. As Attarian (2000) states:

"For the first time, America had lost a war — a war that had divided the country, inflicted traumatizing casualties, and wrecked America's army. A sense of defeat, disillusion, futility, and revulsion for foreign wars lingered. Most Americans came to believe that Vietnam was a war America should have avoided yet could have won, but for constraints on the military." (Attarian 2000, p. 288)

This quotation succinctly summarizes the general views of the time: disappointment in some quarters and, in others, resentment at the government's decision to become involved in the first place. The retreat from Vietnam must therefore be understood against the complex and intertwining emotions and feelings that characterized American society during this period.

The literature points to a number of political reasons for the decision to retreat. However, two cardinal factors had a decisive effect on policy decisions in government: the expression of opposition to the war by the American people, and the pervasive influence of the media.

Brief Background: Key Events Leading to Withdrawal

While space does not permit an extensive analysis of every major event leading up to the decision to retreat, a few key developments should be noted — especially with regard to their impact on public perception of the war's course. One of the most visible cracks in US resolve and the hope for a rapid victory was the Tet Offensive in 1968. As Attarian (2000) states:

"As fighting intensified, American battle deaths soared, from 1,369 in 1965 to 14,592 in 1968, the year of the Tet Offensive (Tet being the Vietnamese lunar New Year holiday), in which communist troops attacked throughout South Vietnam. Although repulsed with staggering losses, the offensive made the war seem unwinnable." (Attarian 2000, p. 288)

This resulted in growing discontent with the war on the part of the American public. "American discontent with the war, which had been rising, surged." (Attarian 2000, p. 288) While there was a brief resurgence of hope for a political solution after Nixon became president and talks with North Vietnam commenced, these hopes were dashed, and the only foreseeable outcome appeared to be a further escalation of the conflict and deeper American involvement.

The main developments following the Nixon administration's entry into the conflict can be summarized as follows. Nixon began withdrawing troops while increasing negotiation efforts. Major US offensives in 1972 suggested possible success and led to ceasefire negotiations, which produced a ceasefire agreement in 1973 — one that eventually broke down. Crucially, regardless of the complex military and diplomatic maneuvering, the American public's perception was that more Americans were being killed each month with little sign of victory. This public perception was to play a vital role in the departure of American troops and the fall of South Vietnam in 1975.

Conclusion

In many ways, the decision to leave Vietnam was a balancing act that the government had to perform between the perceived political and economic repercussions of the war, the increasingly negative public perceptions, and the international implications of a continuation and escalation of the conflict. As one commentator notes, "the cost of getting out must be judged against the cost the president could expect to incur if he chose the only other real option: major escalation." (Logevall 2004)

Central to this debate, however, are the social factors that played a major role in the eventual decision to leave Vietnam. While all of the factors discussed above contributed, it was arguably the cumulative impact of media imagery that proved most decisive. This negative social perception was exacerbated by the absence of a quick military solution and the rising toll of American casualties. The growing prominence of anti-war sentiment was further amplified by the later involvement of many Vietnam veterans in the protest movement, which tended to demoralize supporters of continued military action and impede any decisions that might have accelerated operations.

Therefore, in the final analysis, the internal social forces — the ongoing protests against the war combined with pervasive and uncensored media coverage — played a major role in the decision to retreat from Vietnam. Many critics debate what might have happened had there been no such continuous media reportage of the war and had the anti-war protests not been so extensive and divisive; one view is that a military victory would then have been possible. However, the reality is that the social response to the war grew increasingly negative, and this factor was an integral part of the complex of pressures and influences that brought American involvement in the Vietnam War to its conclusion.

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