dual credit programs

Dual credit programs have been around for decades, allowing a large body of evidence to emerge. The evidence from the past twenty years have also permitted longitudinal studies that reveal the efficacy of dual credit programs in promoting models for peace in higher education. Dual credit programs are executed differently in different states. Program feature diversity and results from empirical literature also permits the body of literature to inform best practices for administration, management, and program assessment in Hawaii.

Themes in the literature include a historical overview showcasing the practically incontrovertible evidence in support of dual credit programs, with recent literature trending towards specific elements of program design, implementation, and assessment. Other trends include the ability of dual credit programs to promote equity through the promotion of minority students in higher education and to increase the representation of minority students and faculty in institutes of higher learning.

The literature, particularly focused on Hawaii, shows how some dual credit programs may be failing to reach objectives due to a lack of supports for students during their critical transition from high school to university. Implications for future research are also covered in the literature. Major trends in the literature are as follows. General Support for Dual Credit Programs The literature overall indicates “strong support” for dual credit programs since they have become more commonplace (Marshall & Andrews, 2002, p. 237).

In states like Illinois, dual credit programs have paralleled legislation designed to promote social justice and advocacy in education (Andrews, 2001). Since the late 1990s, official and formal measures of dual credit program outcomes have taken into account student and parent reactions and perceptions, as well as those from educators and administrators (Marshall & Andrews, 2002).

The literature on dual credit programs also demonstrates the need to engage community organizations and the media in promoting dual credit in a positive light, which raises awareness and increases parental involvement in student education too (Andrews, 2001). A holistic approach to dual credit programs has elicited substantial general support for the integration of these programs throughout a state’s educational system (Andrews, 2011; Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). Leadership is a key to providing the structural and institutional support pathways for dual credit course options.

Literature also shows how dual credit programs have universally been “state-driven” initiatives in postsecondary reform, indicating the fusion of educational philosophies and educational practices (Walsh, Brake & Choi, 2005, p. 199). While federal funding is critical, state-driven support for dual credit programs remains the most important source of revenue and philosophical support (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016).

Increased collaboration and formalized strategic partnerships between public school systems and colleges and universities of all types have also been the cornerstone of dual credit programs, which could just as easily have been linked more to the private sector (Walsh, Brake & Choi, 2005).

While each state handles the funding for dual credit programs differently, and offers different types of financial aid options, the body of literature shows that the most critical elements with regards to state and federal support include tuition support, reimbursement for transportation and books, and need-based aid (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). Therefore, there is great consensus in the literature related to the genesis and orientation of dual credit programs as being driven by top-down practices in government and educational leadership.

Future research will reveal ways of improving the efficacy of strategic partnerships. Goal of Increasing Enrollment Another overarching theme in the literature is related to the ways dual credit programs almost instantly lead to increased enrollment in colleges and universities among underserved populations. In fact, increasing enrollment rates in colleges and universities is a stated goal in dual credit program development at the state level.

The Andrews (2001) research on Illinois is one of the earliest studies to document enrollment trends in a single state, with the Welsh, Brake & Choi (2005) research on the state of Kentucky also using raw data to indicate the successful integration of educational policy and practice: “ to help institutions meet the state's reform goals for access and achievement in higher education,” (p. 199).

Similarly, the Chatman & Smith (1998) research shows how dual credit programs are linked with a number of measurable outcomes both at the student and the administrative level. Overall, then, the research has been promising showing that participation in these programs is a “strong predictor” of student enrollment in and completion of college education (Hoffman, Vargas & Santos, 2009, p. 44).

Research conclusively demonstrates the relationship between dual credit program participation and enrollments in community colleges, colleges, and universities, which in turn supports state funding due to the ability for the programs to meet their stated objectives. State-specific data shows that 81% of high school graduates in Hawaii who have dual credits enroll in college, compared with 52% who do not (Lee, 2016). A related goal in promoting dual credit programs is to increase college and university enrollment mainly among underserved and underrepresented student populations: which is also borne out in empirical research.

Economically disadvantaged students stand to benefit the most from Dual Enrollment/Early College, going to college at almost double the rate of their counterparts without dual credit (Trifonovitch, 2017). As Lee (2016) also points out, economically disadvantaged students with dual credits stay in college longer and have higher college completion rates, too. Administrative Outcomes In fact, a major theme in the literature is linked to the positive administrative outcomes associated with dual credit programs.

Chatman & Smith (1998) show how dual credit programs actually improve financial management practices in the states in which they are implemented, allowing public schools and state-supported institutions of higher learning to better align their educational programs with their budgets. Through strategic partnerships, all educational institutions can participate in sensible and effective resource allocation, human resources development, and opportunities for improving the state economy through improvements to the business and labor markets (Chatman & Smith, 1998).

Only a few books have been included in this literature review, one of which is Fincher-Ford’s (1996) preliminary assessment of dual credit programs. The Fincher-Ford (1996) material is instrumental for outlining measurement and assessment methods that state boards of education have subsequently incorporated into their operations standards. Operational and administrative issues are evenly covered in the last several decades’ worth of literature on how to best design dual credit programs.

Structural and funding issues are covered in the literature, showing that strategic partnerships formed between the public and private sector, and also between government and non-governmental non-profit organizations is key. For example, high profile funders like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provide substantial support for Dual Enrollment and Early College, and funding may also be derived from similar organizations (Hoffman, Vargas & Santos, 2009). Perceptions of Dual Credit An interesting trend in the literature has been research assessing student perceptions and opinions on their experiences with dual credit programs.

The research uses methods like self-report measures detailing student educational and career aspirations. For example, the Smith (2007) research surveyed hundreds of Kansas high school students from rural areas. Focus on rural populations is important in the literature on dual credit programs because rural students are traditionally underserved. The results of the Smith (2007) research show promising results with a “significant and positive relationship” between the programs and educational aspirations (p. 371).

Research on student perceptions of dual credit programs also includes studies showing how these programs have improved the self-efficacy of high school juniors and seniors at a critical juncture in their educational careers. For instance, the Andrews (2004) research indicates that whereas high school students that did not have access to these programs may express bleak attitudes and pessimistic perceptions of their educational future, those who do have access to dual credit options identify educational and career goals with confidence and determination to succeed.

The Ozmun (2013) study is even more instrumental in showing the directionality of the relationship between dual credit programs and student self-efficacy: students with higher self-efficacy were not necessarily more motivated or prone to enrollment in dual credit programs, whereas those who enrolled in dual-credit programs did exhibit a higher degree of self-efficacy. Research on educator perceptions of dual credit programs is less conclusive than research on student perceptions. Some research shows that educators in both high school and college have mixed or ambivalent attitudes on dual credit programs.

The most negative attitudes have been indicated in surveys of college instructors who “expressed their disdain” for teaching high school students they perceived as being ill prepared (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016, p. 40). Research also shows these types of perceptions can be changed through teacher development (Andrews, 2004; Bailey & Karp, 2003, Smith, 2007). Retention Rates While an abundance of research publications showcase the promising and direct causal relationship between dual credit programs and matriculation rates at colleges and universities, less research reveals the impact on retention rates.

A major element promoting future research into how to better design, implement, and assess dual credit programs, an evolving body of evidence is showing that retention does remain one of the greatest challenges for dual credit administrators. The literature yields mixed results, with some studies showing that dual credit programs do lead to higher retention rates among participating students and no appreciable impact on time to completion of the degree (Delicath, 2000).

Research on the “Senior-to-Sophomore” dual credit program in the state of Colorado shows that one of the key factors in degree completion rates is strategic partnerships between state public schools and state university libraries and academic departments (Bruch & Frank, 2011). Research consistently substantiates the need for strategic partnerships, begging future researchers to examine exactly which partnerships work and how those partnerships can become cost-effective, sustainable, and easy to implement.

Literature also shows that researchers believe that partnerships between education and other sectors are when eventually will enhance structural, procedural, and financial support (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). Dual Credit Curricula A fewer number of studies have focused on the ways dual credit programs in different states prepare participating students for success in specific subject matters. One such study was conducted as early as 1998, showing that dual credit programs are linked to achievement outcomes in foreign language development as areas of specialization in undergraduate and graduate school (Chatman & Smith, 1998).

Rogers, Rogers & Baygents (2018) offer one of the few recent studies showing the positive impacts dual credit programs have had on female students pursuing degrees and careers in engineering: a field that notably and problematically underrepresents women. Program content in dual credit programs also varies from state to state, with most centering on academic subjects instead of technical ones (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016).

In fact, many states have mandated that dual credit programs focus on academic subjects only rather than on technical courses to prepare students for technical schools or even remedial education programs (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). The literature shows that all academic subjects, including English language arts, social studies, and math have been linked with student success in these specific courses in university (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). Both AP and dual credit are effective, but in different ways, with meaningful implications for program developers (Eimers & Mullen, 2003).

Other research shows how different program designs yield results in their respective populations, with implications for Hawaii policymakers. For example, Bailey & Karp (2003) outline the program parameters for Singleton Programs, Comprehensive Programs, and Enhanced Comprehensive Programs. Singleton programs offer students the option to take stand-alone college-level courses in a piecemeal fashion. Comprehensive Programs take up almost all of the student’s high school curriculum and experience, while Enhanced Comprehensive Programs offer students “college coursework coupled with guidance and support to ensure their success,” (Bailey & Karp, 2003, p. 46).

The literature generally demonstrates the need to offer students all of these different options, if possible, to account for individual differences and needs. Raising Awareness of Dual Credit Furthermore, the research reveals the need for high school administrators, educators, and librarians to make information literacy a much greater focus when counseling students in high school, in order to increase awareness of these programs (Bruch & Frank, 2011).

In fact, no dual credit programs will be effective if students in high school are unaware that they exist, or if their parents lack access to information. Educators also need to know about these programs and how to announce them to all students, without discrimination. Alerting parents of the financial benefits of dual credit programs is also crucial, because financial considerations remain a key consideration when making the decision to attend college and university.

Tuition costs and financial issues are of course one of the most important areas of research in dual credit program efficacy. The results are generally positive and encouraging, albeit mixed due to issues with program design, implementation, and evaluation.

Although dual credit programs certainly do increase the representation of low-income and rural students in college and university, those numbers are not universally replicated and do not necessarily correlate with degree completion or career attainment because of the lack of adequate structural supports when the students reach university (Austin-King, Lee, Little, et al., 2012).

Equity One of the great ironies in the study of dual credit degree programs and their goal of increasing enrollment and success rates among underserved communities is that the programs are not necessarily equitably promoted or sustained due specifically to financial inequities and the lack of attention paid to providing students and families with support and resources.

Taylor (2015), for example, shows that while all students do benefit from dual credit programs, students of color and low-income students both seem to reap the benefits less than their more privileged counterparts because the lack of additional supports given such as help with tuition and related financial support in college, as well as to reduced levels of social support when in college.

Bragg, Kim & Barnett (2006) also had similar results, showing that almost all (90%) dual credit students surveyed indicate the desire for college education, but only about 60% of student actually enroll in college, nearly half fail to complete their intended degree program. Of those students who do complete their college degree program as planned, many—especially those from middle to lower income brackets—do not reap the financial or career benefits expected from their substantial investment of time, energy, and money (Bragg, Kim & Barnett, 2006).

The literature therefore shows that there are still problems in the ways dual credit programs are funded, designed, implemented, and assessed. In most cases, families do not need to pay for the dual credit programs themselves, although each specific program does have different funding and payment strategies with some actually do demanding some payment or arrangements for transportation (Barnett, Maclutsky & Wagonlander, 2015).

Dual credit programs throughout the nation also tend to be “partially implemented or underutilized, partly because of insufficient government financial support or inadequate institutional capacity and commitment,” (Bragg, Kim & Barnett, 2006, p. 6). Even the smallest impediment to enrollment can impact the decision to enroll. In addition to financial factors, students from disadvantaged backgrounds need different educational strategies to support their decisions, succeed in the program, and then transition to college seamlessly.

Research shows that there are several ways educators and administrators can help disadvantaged students regain social capital, such as by providing instructional scaffolding or using “enhanced dual enrollment systems,” (Barnett, Maclutcky & Wagonlander, 2015, p. 43). Such enhanced dual enrollment systems have been tested in Michigan, with measurable success (Bragg, Kim & Barnett, 2006, p. 9).

If the goal is “helping students overcome hurdles or fill in gaps that would otherwise stand in their way,” then program designers can do more to make dual credit more accessible not just in high school but also during the transition to college (Bragg, Kim & Barnett, 2006, p. 6). The need for “non-cognitive and psychosocial supports” is a major theme in the literature such as the research by Taylor (2015, p. 355).

Research conclusively shows that dual credit programs need to be highly visible to minority and underserved high school students to overcome the inequities in access and success rates (Taylor, 2015). For example, Bragg, Kim & Barnett (2006) found that dual credit programs are more successful when they incorporate “boundary-spanning curricula, instructional and organizational strategies” that link high school and college,” (p. 6).

Cultural competencies, culturally appropriate course content and instructional strategies, peer group special supports, study groups, and mentors are all addressed in the literature as factors contributing to successful dual degree program (Taylor, 2015). Research also shows that students benefit from a “small, personalized environment,” in the dual credit courses but also in college (Barnett, Maclutsky & Wagonlander, 2015, p. 39).

The literature shows that when designing dual credit programs, educators should stress methods that encourage completion and transition planning in the interests of promoting peace and personal fulfillment (Barnett, Maclutsky & Wagonlander, 2015; Bragg, Kim & Barnett, 2006; Taylor, 2015). Barriers to entry remain a primary area of concern in the literature. Entry into Early College/Dual Enrollment programs requires awareness, advocacy and accessibility. Some students and their parents may not find out about these programs.

Ethnic minorities, first-generation immigrants, English language learners, and economically disadvantaged students are particularly vulnerable at this stage (Hoffman, Vargas & Santos, 2009; Taylor, 2015). The programs may not be introduced to these students in culturally or age-appropriate ways, or discussed with parents. Therefore, an increasing body of literature is starting to address dual credit program shortcomings.

Themes include those related to how to provide adequate teacher training in a cost-effective manner, how to expand programming to account for the needs of rural residents and students with diverse needs, how to increase program participation, how to align dual credit programs with other methods of financially supporting low-income households such as Free and Reduced Price Lunches, and how to work with colleges and universities to ensure their active participation in student retention practices.

In a recent report delivered to the state legislature in Washington, Newell (2015) addresses each of these issues, and research by Phelps & Chan (2016) detail similar issues extant in Midwestern state dual credit programs. Eligibility requirements are major issues in dual credit design, especially if one of the major program goals is to increase enrollment among all students and especially underserved ones. Current eligibility requirements vary from state to state but usually include GPA, test scores, and ranking compared with peers (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016).

Some students may also need letters of recommendation but often programs have few requirements other than to remain in good academic standing (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). To make dual credit programs more accessible to underserved communities, the programs may need to be designed in ways that allow underachieving students to enroll. Also, students may need to be invited to enroll earlier than high school, with research demonstrating successful program design models as early as the sixth grade, as in Florida (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016).

Program structure and design are key issues in the literature. Because each state has different dual credit programs, with some offering multiple options for students, the results of empirical studies vary considerably. Some programs limit the number of dual credit programs the students can complete, whereas others offer the opportunity for full immersion (Tobolowsky & Allen, 2016). Teacher Preparation Teacher preparation is a core issue in the literature.

For example, the Phelps & Chan (2016) research includes additional data showing “greater levels of college student success and better labor market outcomes” for dual credit students whose teachers had been specially trained in academic, career, and technical training. The early Chapman & Smith (1998) research also showcases the need for high school teacher training and administrative support.

Radunzel, Noble & Wheeler (2014) also show that teacher training that stresses diverse needs leads to improved student outcomes, with research on different Texas dual credit programs showing that “chances of college success do not differ between those who take most of their dual-credit coursework through a two-year institution and those who take most through a four-year institution,” (p. 1). Research particularly reveals a strong correlation between technical preparation and dual credit success in math-related degree programs (Kim, 2014).

The Tobolowsky & Allen (2016) research indicates that the instructors at community colleges, colleges,.