The Tao Te Ching: Authorship, context, and contemporary relevance

Tao de Ching is one of the most influential and important philosophical texts in human history. Attributed to Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu between 500 and 400 BCE, the teachings contained within the Tao de Ching have become collectively known as Taoism. The term "tao" or "dao" is usually translated straightforwardly as "the way," but the entire title of the text Tao de Ching may refer to a cluster of concepts including "the way of integrity" (Walter 1) or the "way and its power," ("Lao Tzu: The Father of Taoism," 1). Knierim points out that the term "ching" means scripture, and the term "te" means both strength and virtue. Thus, Tao de Ching does refer to a scriptural text about the way or path of strength and virtue. The Tao de Ching is not a narrative text, but a prescriptive one written as short verses containing wisdom quips and advice for how to live ethically, with authenticity, and in harmony with the rest of the world.

Unfortunately, the origins and even authorship of the Tao de Ching remain shrouded in mystery because there is no definitive information about whether Lao Tzu wrote all 81 verses, or whether he compiled the verses from the prevailing Taoist texts of his predecessors and contemporaries. Lao Tzu was an archivist, scribe, and calligrapher working for the imperial court, but "little can be said with absolute certainty about the origins of the Tao Te Ching," (Walter 1). In fact, little is actually known about Lao Tzu (sometimes spelled with the pinyin Laozi). Lao Tzu is actually more of a nickname, a term that means "old master," (Walter 1) or "old sage," ("Lao Tzu: Father of Taoism" 1). The real name of Lao Tzu may have been Li Erh, which means "long ears," ("History of the Tao de Ching," 1). Although it is sometimes suspected that Lao Tzu was only one of many authors that contributed to the Tao de Ching, "the coherence of the text, and the consistency of the tone, point to a single extraordinarily wise author," ("History of the Tao de Ching," 1).

The mystery surrounding the author and origins of the text has given rise to legends and myths. For example, one legend is that Lao Tzu was "conceived at the moment that his mother glimpsed a falling star," and another that he was "born at the age of 62 when his mother stopped to rest beneath a plum tree," ("History of the Tao de Ching," 1). The former motif of his being conceived in conjunction with a falling star implies a cosmic coincidence, and also parallels the core teachings of Taoism as reflecting harmonious concordance with the universe. The concept of Lao Tzu being born at age 62 reflects the belief in the sage's innate and inborn wisdom and his being predestined to be a teacher of the Tao. In fact, the name Lao Tzu can also be translated as "old-young," referring to the legend of his being born already a wise man (Knierim 3). Moreover, if Li Erh ("Long Ears") was indeed his birth name, Lao Tzu would have been named after "a Chinese symbol of wisdom and longevity," ("History of the Tao de Ching," 1). Ascribing near-supernatural status to the author elevates the Tao de Ching to the level of sacred text, even though the author does not ascribe to a deistic cosmology. Taoism is not a theological text, but it is a transcendent one.

Another legend surrounding the origin of the text and how Lao Tzu came to write it may have some grounding in the historical record, even if there is little archaeological evidence to substantiate it. According to this legend, Lao Tzu fled war-torn regions of China by riding a water buffalo into the mountains toward Tibet. When he reached a mountain pass, a gatekeeper named Yin Xi asked that Lao Tzu record his wisdom in writing. Lao Tzu agreed, and within a few days inscribed the 5000 Chinese characters that comprise the text of the Tao de Ching. According to the legend, Lao Tzu was never seen again ("History of the Tao de Ching,"; Knierim).

There are many different English translations of the text that do affect its overall interpretation and meaning. However, Taoism is ultimately a philosophy of being, a guide for right thinking and right attitude that can help people to enjoy living harmoniously and peacefully rather than by creating or perpetuating conflict. Whereas its counterpart philosophical tradition, Confucianism, was concerned more about ethical precepts in terms of social norms and political culture, Taoism is more about personal responsibility and introspection as the key to right living. The Tao is itself "an attitude, state of mind or way of being in the world," ("History of the Tao de Ching," 1). One general gist of the Tao de Ching is that individuals possess the power to transform the world by changing themselves, by living in harmony with nature and with other people.

Taoist philosophy emphasizes detachment and non-striving, similar to Buddhist precepts. However similar their core worldviews, the motifs and symbols of Taoism differ significantly. For example, a key principle of Taoism is the yin/yang: a concept of dualism that does not pit good against evil but which simply illustrates the interplay of opposing forces of nature. Yin is often associated with darkness, coolness, receptivity, and the female principles of nature. Yang is linked with heat, light, and masculinity. Yin and yang need to be in balance to create and maintain harmony in the universe and in the lives of human beings. The principles of yin and yang do not compete with one another, but they are nevertheless essential for their mutual expression. They are "inextricably one, and cannot exist apart from each other," indicating the "perfect symmetry of the universe," (History of the Tao de Ching," 1).

The yin/yang principle is not the only tenet of the Tao de Ching. Taoism also informs right action in the world, without the moralizing and pedantry of Confucianism. For example, the section on power and politics shows how genuine personal power comes not from oppressing others but from having true self-confidence, self-esteem, peace, and poise: "True Persons know themselves but make no show of themselves.They know their valuebut do not exalt themselves," (Lao Tzu, Section 72). Another principle of Taoism as expressed by Lao Tzu is the folly of materialism. Lao Tzu urges people "to turn away from the folly of human pursuits and to return to one's natural wellspring," ("Lao Tzu: Father of Taoism," 1). Lao Tzu also stresses the importance of mindfulness, awareness, and particularly, self-mastery. "The central thing the Tao Te Ching asks us to be aware of is not the world, but our self," (Walter 1). Focusing inward, the individual can correct his or her character flaws or bad attitudes, transforming the self into a balanced, kind, caring, and harmonious person.

Yet for all its counseling on how to compose the mind and achieve psychological integration, Taoism has a pragmatic and practical application. Through self-awareness and self-mastery, a human being can become a more exemplary leader, parent, and worker. Lao Tzu spends a good deal of time discussing the source of true power, not just in section 72 but throughout the 81 passages comprising the Tao de Ching. Lao Tzu continually reminds readers of the importance of ongoing learning and personal development. Remaining flexible throughout the life course is the sign of wisdom: "Grass and trees are pliant and tender when living, but they are dry and brittle when dead.Therefore, the stiff and hard are attendants of death, the supple and soft are attendants of life," (Lao Tzu, Section 76).

So influential and universal has the Tao de Ching become that the phrase "Tao of . . . " has become almost a cliche. Hoff's 1982 book Tao of Pooh is an example of how contemporary European/North American authors have distilled the teachings of Lao Tzu into a language and context more accessible to modern readers. Likewise, English language authors have written a slew of texts like Tao of Leadership (Heider), Tao of Self-Confidence, and Tao of Programming (James). Several of these adaptations of the Lao Tzu text contain humor, which Lao Tzu would have appreciated given his advice: "The mediocre student on hearing the Tao laughs at it loudly.If this student did not laugh it would not be the Tao," (Lao Tzu, Section 41).