Japan and Confucianism in Art and Society

Neo-Confucianism was a positive force in Japan at this time because it promoted unity among the three different main philosophies in Asia -- Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism (Tucker 495). Prior to the arrival of Neo-Confucianism in Japan it was not seen how these three philosophies could go together, even though the first two were used by Taishi to form a Constitution so many years before. The Japanese referred to the unity that Neo-Confucianism gave to the people as Sankyo, which is translated into English as the "Three Religions." In Japan, the union of these three religions, supported by Neo-Confucian philosophy helped to unify Japan culturally and socially.

The "3" aspect of Sankyo was incorporated into Japanese art to celebrate the unification of the three religions in Japanese culture under Neo-Confucianism (Stunkel 17). There is the picture of Sankyo, the Three Patriarchs; the Sansan-zu, the Three Sages Tasting Vinegar; and the Kokei Sansho, Three Laughers of Tiger Ravine. These three types of artistic composition can be seen below with a brief description of each one.

Figure 1. Close-up of the "Three Patriarchs: Confucius (hat), Buddha (curled hair), and Lao Tzu (white-haired elder). By Hasegawa Tousetsu - (+1539-1610) at Egawa Museum, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan." http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/japanese-confucianism.html

In the painting of the Three Patriarchs, shown above, Buddha

is in the middle, Lao Tzu is on the right, and Confucius is on the left.

The three are huddled together, representing a philosophical triumvirate that united Japan in the 15th-16th centuries thanks to the Japanese monks who traveled to China to discover Neo-Confucianism. Artworks like this were painted in the 16th century to commemorate the cultural patriarchy that these three philosophers represented for the Japanese. This picture appears at the bottom of a scroll that hangs in Hyogo Prefecture (see right).

It was originally painted by the Japanese Zen priest named Josetsu

for the Ryosokuin Temple in Kyoto.

In the painting of the Three Sages Tasting Vinegar, a symbolic element is evident in the construction of the portrait. Confucius is again represented on the left and is painted in a manner that shows him interfering with rules and how one should behave. The Buddhist is depicted in the middle as being in control, practicing denial and generally being unappreciative; and Lao Tzu is on the right showing a good nature that is appreciative, harmonious and naturally light. The vinegar represents life and nature -- and the Three Sages are circled around it offering their approaches to it.

Figure 2. Three Sages Tasting Vinegar: Confucius, Buddha, Lao-tsu; Muromachi Period

by Keison ( -- ), Fukaji Temple -,Shizuoka Prefecture. http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/japanese-confucianism.html

In the painting of the Three Laughers at Tiger Ravine, the same "3" depiction is used again. Here the figures represent Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. The figures depicted are the poet Tao Yuanming, the Taoist Lu Xiujing and the Buddhist Huiyuan. The poet and the Taoist go to visit the Buddhist. To get there they must cross the bridge that goes over the Tiger Ravine. The Buddhist lives as a hermit and has sworn that he will never go back over the bridge. Yet, when the two visitors depart he walks with them to the river and the three are so immersed in conversation that the Buddhist keeps walking with them right over the bridge to the other side. When the three realize what has happened they begin to laugh. The depiction has symbolic meaning: the poet represents the rules and strict adherence of law that is Confucianism; the Buddhist represents Buddhism and renunciation, and the Taoist represents the Tao.

Figure 3. Three Laughers at Tiger Ravine by Chuan Shinko -- (mid +15C). Tokyo Nat'l Museum. http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/japanese-confucianism.html

The bridge represents the "way" to the other shore of life and the three walking the bridge together represents the idea that no one philosophy alone is sufficient to get to the other side -- but instead the three have to go together. This is what Japan celebrated about Neo-Confucianism, because it reconciled the different philosophies and showed that they can fit together for the society (Huang 300).

These three works of art are pre-modern and come from the Muromachi and Edo periods of Japan (1400 to 1850, circa). The togetherness of the three philosophers reflects the ecumenical doctrine of the Neo-Confucian standpoint. A closer look at each of the three paintings can shed more light on what this ecumenical doctrine was and how it came to be viewed.

In Josetsu's Three Patriarchs, the three fathers of Japan's main religious beliefs were Confucius, Lao Tzu and Buddha. Separately they did not advance the aim of unity or togetherness in Japan. It was thanks to the Constitution of Prince Shotoku Taishi that two of the main religions were put together to help move Japan forward as a unified state. However, many years past and this union fell apart through in-fighting among the various parts and regions of Japan. A new vision was needed to bring the people back together again. This vision was found in Neo-Confucianism, which held that apart, each of the philosophers and religious founders would drive the Japanese people away from one another. Together they could bring the people under one roof. That was the main idea of Neo-Confucianism: each of the three could offer a view of life that was respectable and respected by the others. Each would in its own way say something about the world and about how the individual should view it. So it was that the Three Patriarchs are united in Josetsu's painting in the Temple in Kyoto.

In Fukaji Temple is Keison's painting of the Three Sages tasting vinegar. In this painting, the three characters are representative of the Three Patriarchs, but they also characters from the tale behind the title of the painting. The tale goes like this: One day, Su Dongpo (a Chinese poet) and Huang Shangu went to the temple to seek Foyin the monk. Foyin brought wine out for his guests. It was supposed to be sweet wine, but when they all tasted it at the same time, they were shocked to taste that it was bitter. The poet, his friend and the monk are like the characters in the Three Laughers -- who are also a poet, his friend and a monk. They represent the three belief systems that came to Japan and helped develop the culture. The artist Kaihou Yuushou like Keison produced a painting of this narrative for the Myoushinji Temple in Kyoto as well in the 16th century. The popularity of this subject matter for monks tells the effect of the arrival of Neo-Confucianism in Japan when the Zen monks brought it back with them from their visit in China. It helped to explain the need for unity in Japan.

The importance of the three philosophers balancing one another out is not lost in the artworks depicted above. For instance, in the painting of the Three Sages tasting vinegar, each of the philosophers has a particular reaction that reveals a quality of that philosophy that was problematic for a side of life in Japan. The character that represents Confucianism is upset at the bitterness of the wine because wine is not supposed to bitter. If one had followed the rules and done everything appropriately according to how it should be ideally done, the wine would have been sweet instead of like vinegar -- but clearly somewhere along the line, something was done incorrectly, so the sweet wine had turned sour. The face that the character who represents Confucius makes is a bitter face and his arms are out in a lecturing manner as though he is making a list of points that need to be followed more closely in the future. The fact that Confucius knows what needs to be done is in his favor, but the way he comes off can be very severe and too strict for others, who are likely to be turned off by his strict adherence to rules and always insisting on what is right. Some people in society in Japan would not like that and would feel that Confucius was too harsh.

The face of the character who represents the Buddhist on the other hand is somewhat detached and is not as emotionally disturbed by the sour wine. On the one hand, his detachment is good because he has practiced the art of self-renunciation: he does not become perturbed when things do not turn out as they should. On the other hand, he is not likely to fix the situation either. To fix a situation and make it better, one must admonish and lead the way and show how to follow the rules and insist on what they are: one must educate and teach and always be on top of things when they fall apart, ready to leap down and do the instructing -- like Confucius. So while the Buddhist is appealing because he does not become upset by the sour wine, he is unappealing because he does not have the force or energy to fix the situation: he is more interested in accepting things or in not letting things upset him because he believes all of reality is really just a dream anyway.

The character who represent Lao-Tzu is happier and laughs and does not let the sour wine affect him at all. He is amused by it and it is possible that his jolly mirth is partly to blame for the wine turning sour in the first place -- he was perhaps too careless about making the wine or keeping it safe. So while he presents a good juxtaposition to the severity of Confucius and to the ambivalence of the Buddhist he also lacks the discipline needed to make sure that the wine is properly kept.

Separately, therefore, each of the sages has pros and cons that make them appealing and make them unappealing. Together, on the other hand, they each fill the gaps that separately they bring to the table. Confucius has the discipline needed to do things right, but he is too severe; the Buddhist has the detachment to ensure that when things go badly no one is too upset, but he lacks the involvement of the Confucian; the Taoist has the mirth needed to keep situations from devolving into chaos and tension and fighting, but he lacks the discipline to ensure that order can be maintained. Together they bring the missing qualities that help Japanese society become whole, united and healthy; apart the bring division and their faults overwhelm the society.

This is the essence of the ecumenical vision put forward by the "3" compositions in Neo-Confucian art in Japan. It shows that the new Confucian model of society in Japan in the 16th century was based on togetherness and identifying the good parts of the other religions that helped to make society a better place. The theme of the Three Patriarchs is evident again and again over the years in Japanese religious art. It is depicted here in the story of the Three Laughers by two different artists, one just prior to the end of the pre-modern era in 1846, and the other from the 18th century in the middle of the 1700s.

Figure 4. Three Laughers by Syohaku Soga

- +1730-1781

http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/japanese-confucianism.html

Figure 5. Three Laughers, panels on sliding doors by -, +1846-1800 mm X 1124 mm at Ryukoku-ji Temple-http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/japanese-confucianism.html

While Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism did not spark or inspire a great artistic run in Japan (the pictures above come from the monks who painted the Three Patriarchs to represent the historical movement of religious feeling in Japan), Confucianism did play a part how Japanese society regulated itself.

One element of Confucianism that came to dominate Japanese society was the reverence it had of ancestors. Japanese people for many centuries would venerate their ancestors by keeping tablets with their names in their homes with altars that were also used for the purpose of venerating the ancestors. During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods (12th century and 14th to 15th century respectively), this practice grew among aristocratic families in Japan and eventually spread to all families as a common practice that came from Confucian ideals.

Other aspects of Confucian thought informed Japanese society, such as the ideal of loyalty, hierarchy (respect for authority and older persons), honesty, discipline (education was critical to success in Japan throughout the centuries), and filial devotion (the idea of being loyal to one's master).

These concepts were spread throughout Japan in many ways and Confucian shrines were one way that they spread. While there are many Buddhist temples in Japan, there are fewer that are dedicated solely to Confucius. Yet where these temples are located, there were always many followers who would go there to pray and seek guidance from the Confucian scholar. In Japan, Confucius is recognized as a kind of patron saint of students.

The pictures below represent the reverence that could be found in Japan during this time for Confucius. The paintings and the sculptures are indicative of the serious posture that Confucius asked of his adherents: the hands folded together represents strength and discipline and there is a touch of solemnity and sobriety in the posture of the philosopher that is captured in every representation. These depictions embody the vigor, intellectual passion and warrior-spirit that Confucianism inspired. Because of his popularity among the warrior class, who identified with Confucius's respect for fighting and the need to know how to ride a horse, combat and practice safety by having an army and a posture ready for way, the warrior class especially was drawn to the teachings of Confucius once the revival occurred in Japan in the 16th century. The warrior class recognized in this teacher the signs of a true fighter, one who was intellectual, used his mind to overcome obstacles, practiced virtue, dignity and respect, and honored his master. To them, he was a model leader, one who was intelligent and masterful. In the pictures below one sees how poised Confucius is, with his sword ready at his side in case he should need to fight. He is an image of readiness.

Figure 6. Confucian shrines and images found in Japan throughout the pre-modern period.

http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/japanese-confucianism.html

Confucianism inspired court proceedings as a result of Prince Shotoku Taishi's Constitution, and in the Edo period from the beginning of the 17th century to the middle of the 19th century (end of the pre-modern era), Confucianism played a major role in the revival of ethical philosophy. This was, of course, thanks to Neo-Confucianism, which was very popular among the political establishment in Japan during this period as well as among the warrior classes (Paramore 69). It allowed more focus to be given on the actual governance of society and motivated persons to leave the "mystical" aspects of Buddhism to one side or at least to give some time to the practical, ethical, and material ways of how to govern, rule and live in society together practically speaking. This period allowed the monopoly on thought that the Buddhist sanctuaries possessed to be lessened and for Confucian thought to flourish once more.

The mystical attraction of Buddhism for much of Japanese society from the 13th to the 16th centuries was lessened by the advent of Neo-Confucianism which restored a sense of thoughtfulness, practicality and political sense and order. It also helped to facilitate the unity that the country benefitted from.

During this same period, the first Christian missionaries began arriving. They came to convert the Japanese people to Catholicism (Tsutsui). The Japanese were interested in what the missionaries had to say and many of them did convert. Toyotomi Hideyoshi had helped to unify Japan and he was suspicious of the foreign missionaries. He did not want outsiders influencing the people and breaking up the unity he had helped to forge. Hideyoshi was mainly inspired by Buddhist sentiments, so his religious feeling was offended by the new religion as well. He was not as impacted by the Confucian revival, otherwise he might have had more tolerance for the missionaries, seeing a common bond between them. Because he was more concerned about the unity in Japan than philosophical discussions, he ordered a ban against the missionaries and ended the influx of Catholic religion into Japan (Elisonas 27).

This began a closing off of Japan to outside influences that lasted for many years. In one regard, the concept of Neo-Confucianism was responsible for the isolationist fears of Hideyoshi (Fujita 230). It had emphasized the need for unity in Japan and that is what Hideyoshi had brought by an end to the in-fighting. It also overlooked the need to make distinctions and to address the issue of which perspective was true. While Neo-Confucianism exerted an ecumenical proposition into Japan, it did so at the expense of certainty. It offered compromise for the sake of unity over concepts like truth versus falsehood. Japan did not settle the question of reality vs. unreality that Confucianism and Buddhism inherently brought about as they each had conflicting viewpoints on the world; instead it settled for a compromise in which the three religions could get along by accepting the positive aspects of one another and overlooking the faults. This had some practical benefit in terms of helping to create unity -- but the negative effect was that it created a closing off of the mind that had previously been open to asking questions about what was true and what was not -- which was why there was so much fighting.