Parental and peer predictors of adolescent self-esteem

¶ … adolescent self-esteem: the factors that cause or predict high and low self-esteem, some possible consequences of low self-esteem, and mechanisms that underlie change in self-esteem or reroute possible consequences of low self-esteem. Predictive factors fell into two large categories: parents and peers. Adolescents with Indulgent parents have equal or higher levels of self-esteem than adolescents with Authoritative parents, while adolescents with Authoritarian or Neglectful parents have the lowest self-esteem scores. Research reviewed dealt with possible negative consequences of low self-esteem: jealousy, aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency. Mechanisms that interrupt the linkage of poor early environment to low self-esteem to negative outcomes were described as resilience and protective factors, and included caring adults (teachers, pastors, church members), value placed on individual's contributions to the community, access to resources such as health-care facilities, normative expectations, positive role-modeling by adults, and clear and consistent boundaries.

Introduction

A definition of self-esteem that has stood the tests of time and productive research is implied in Rosenberg's (1965) statement: "When we speak of high self-esteem . . . we . . . simply mean that the individual respects himself, considers himself worthy . . . low self-esteem, on the other hand, implies self-rejection, self-dissatisfaction, self-contempt." The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, based on this conception, is still in frequent use -- nearly 50 years later.

Self-esteem is generally regarded as a relatively constant characteristic of an individual.. Assessments of self-esteem throughout individuals' life spans reveal that, on average, self-esteem is relatively high in childhood, decreases in adolescence (especially for girls), increases gradually throughout adulthood, and decreases considerably in old age. In spite of these general age differences, people tend to maintain the same ordering relative to one another; that is, individuals whose self-esteem is relatively high at one point in time will most likely have relatively high self-esteem years later (Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005).

Rew's (2005) discussion of adolescent self-esteem, which used a diagram linking background factors (such as family and peers) to personality characteristics (such as self-esteem) to outcomes (such as adaptive or maladaptive behaviors) suggested the following way of organizing this paper, which concerns issues or questions about adolescent self-esteem:

What factors cause or predict high and low self-esteem?

What are some possible consequences of low self-esteem?

What mechanisms underlie change in self-esteem or reroute possible consequences of low self-esteem?

Predictors

Two major classes of predictors impact self-esteem in adolescents: parents and peers (and media).

Parents

Probably the single most important predictor of a child's self-esteem is how parents interact with the child. Martinez and Garcia (2008) classified each child in their sample of adolescents into one of four groups -- Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, and Neglectful parents -- based on the child's report of how the parent related to him or her. (Definition of the groups is as follows: Authoritative -- parents are demanding but responsive; Indulgent -- parents are responsive but not demanding; Authoritarian -- parents are demanding but not responsive; Neglectful -- parents are nether demanding nor responsive.) Their study found that adolescents with Indulgent parents have equal or higher levels of self-esteem than adolescents with Authoritative parents, while adolescents with Authoritarian or Neglectful parents have the lowest self-esteem scores.

Consequences/Effects of Low Self-Esteem

A number of studies have shown that low self-esteem is predictive of negative outcomes. Parker et al. (2005) found that girls and adolescents with low self-worth reported the greatest jealousy of friends and that a reputation for being jealous of friends was associated with aggressive behavior and other peer adjustment difficulties, including loneliness.

Donnellan et al. (2005) found a link between low self-esteem and externalizing problems such as aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency. The authors cited Rosenberg (1965), who suggested that low self-esteem weakens ties to society and weaker ties to society decrease conformity to social norms and increase delinquency.

Other research has linked low self-esteem to substance abuse, depression, and suicidal ideation (Donnellan et al., 2005; Rew, 2005).

Change in Self-Esteem and Rerouting of Possible Consequences

But what of adolescents who have authoritarian or neglectful parents and feel outside the "in-group"? Are they doomed to have low self-esteem and a higher probability of antisocial behavior?

The results of the study by Edwards and Romero (2008), described earlier, indicate otherwise. Adolescents who used direct coping strategies to deal with the stress of discrimination and thereby decreased the effect of discrimination on self-esteem did not follow the poor early environment-low self-esteem-negative outcome sequence. These children would be considered resilient. Rew (2005) identified resilient children as those whose coping mechanisms and cognitive styles protect them from adverse outcomes in spite of poor early environments (such as those with parental discord, criminality or psychiatric disorder). She also listed some of the qualities within the individual that make for resilience:

Temperament (affectionate, alert, responsive)

Sense of humor

Having self-care strategies

Internal locus of control

Religious beliefs and activities

Skills (athletic, artistic, academic)

Early communication

Engages in extracurricular activities

Beliefs

Takes care of younger child or pet

Werner's (1993) well-regarded Kauai longitudinal study also argues against a predetermined sequence of environmental hazard leading to low self-esteem leading to poor adjustment. Werner found that most individuals in a multiracial cohort of children who were exposed at an early age to environmental hazards became competent, caring adults. Werner used the term protective factors to explain her findings. (Rutter -- cited by Rew (2005) -- defined protective factors as those "influences that modify, ameliorate, or alter a person's response to some environmental hazard that predisposes to a maladaptive outcome" (p. 203). Some of the relevant protective factors are:

Caring adults (teachers, pastors, church members)

Those who exhibit prosocial values and behaviors

Value placed on individual's contributions to the community

Access to resources such as health-care facilities

Normative expectations

Positive role-modeling by adults

Clear and consistent boundaries

Werner concluded her article with a sentence that seems appropriate here: "The individuals in our study who overcame the odds and grew into competent and caring adults . . . told their life stories . . . without rancor, but with a sense of compassion and, above all, with optimism and hopefulness."