Is Confucianism a religion or a philosophy?

Confucianism

Was Confucianism a religion or philosophy

Confucianism is commonly referred to as a moral, ethical and political system of thought or as a 'religious philosophy'. This is unclear and seemingly ambiguous and the question that will be addressed in this paper is whether Confucianism is a religion or a philosophy. This question takes into account the complex and often convulsed debate about the difference between religion and philosophy.

The most contemporary views on this issue are divided. On the one hand there are studies and commentaries that view Confucianism as compatible with and similar to modern humanistic religions. From this perspective Confucianism therefore falls into the category of a religion per se and can be equated with any other modern religion. On the other hand there are contemporary philosophers and thinkers like Martin Heidegger and others whose works tend to critique the humanist tradition of thinking and suggest a return or resurgence of a more transcendent, 'mystical' and less and humanistic form of religion.

Heidegger and other modern and postmodern thinkers tend to question the commonly accepted meaning and depth of modern religion. Many critics view modern religion as having lost the 'transcendent' quality so important in traditional concept of religion. One could refer to theological theorists such as Rene Guenon in this regard. From this perspective modern religions, including Confucianism, have been reduced to human-centered systems of ethics and morals, which is something very different to what religion should be. The point being made is that there are different concepts of what religion is and has become and this is further complicates the question of whether Confucianism is a religion.

The intention of this paper is not to become too deeply involved in a complex and extensive debate about meaning of religion. However cognizance must be taken of these different views in order to comprehensively answer this question.

In order to facilitate an answer to this question the two main opposing schools of thought on this issue will serve as a starting point for this discussion. The problem that we are dealing with can be summarized as follows. Acknowledging variations, there are two schools of thought that are central to the debate about the meaning of modern religion. The first school of thought views religion primarily from the subjectivist and humanist tradition. From the point-of-view of this perspective Confucianism is a philosophical system of thought with morals, norms and rituals, similar to many churches, creeds and faiths.

However, the second point-of-view is that religion must be, in the very first instance, be transcendent, mystical and non-humanistic. In this light then Confucianism is not a religion but rather a moral philosophy and a system of ethical and social tenets that are more in line with pragmatic Christianity.

Therefore, at its most fundamental level the question of whether Confucianism is a religion or a philosophy hinges on a much larger and extremely complex issue. This refers to the meaning or the interpretations of religion in the modern context, coupled with the equally thorny issue of the dividing line, if any, between philosophy and religion. Consequently, it is only in the context and ambit of a discourse that takes account of these larger issues that the question of whether Confucianism is a religion or a philosophy can be honesty answered. This paper will attempt to answer this question by referring to different views and opinions from scholars on the issues at stake.

2. A Brief Overview of Confucianism

Confucianism was founded the Chinese philosopher Confucius in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C.

there is a strong social and even political component to Confucianism and it places emphasis on aspects such as the harmonious relationship between people in society, proper behavior and a compassionate attitude towards others.

However, from the beginning there was a strong view that Confucianism was mainly a pragmatic, social and ethical philosophy that promoted social harmony and good morals and ethics. This more philosophical and social approach was critiqued by other religions. As one study comments; "Its practical, socially oriented philosophy was challenged by the more mystical precepts of Taoism and Buddhism… ."

This is an important point as it illustrates the essential difference between a moral philosophy, which places emphasis on social and humanistic goals, and a traditional religion that is in the first instance transcendent and which views moral and humanistic goals as secondary to the transcendental aspect. This difference and the view that Confucianism is more of a philosophy than a religion, is again emphasized in the following quotation: "Confucianism was primarily a system of ethical precepts for the proper management of society. It envisaged man as essentially a social creature who is bound to his fellows by ?jen, a term often rendered as "humanity," or "human-kind-ness."

It should also be noted that Confucianism was also concerned with the relationship between man and nature as well the harmonious relationship between the individuals and society. "…Confucian tradition offers profound insights on the relationship between humanity and nature and between individual and society. Its philosophy of the unity of heaven and humanity and its familial model confirm that it constitutes a broadly humanistic worldview."

The above point emphasizes the humanistic view of this doctrine as a form of moral philosophy. However, Yu, and Lu (2000 ) also stresses that Confucianism was the "unity of heaven and humanity"; which suggests more than just a pragmatic humanist philosophy.

Therefore, the question now becomes whether Confucianism can be understood as both a religion and a philosophy. This also implies that its categorization as a religion must be considered. .

3. Confucianism as a Religion

There are many scholars who view Confucianism as a religion in the same sense of modern Christianity or Buddhism. This view is based on the fact that Confucianism seeks external harmony with nature and the "heavens" as well as internal social harmony. Tucker notes that there may be historical reasons for the designation of Confucianism as a philosophy rather than a religion.

It is important to note from the outset that Confucianism and its later expression in Neo-Confucianism have most frequently been designated as an ethical system rather than as a religion. This has been derived in part from the early appreciation of the rational and moral aspects of the Confucian tradition first by the seventeenth-century Jesuit missionaries in China and later by the eighteenth-century French philosophers.

In other words, Western and Eurocentric interpretations of Confucian thought and belief tended to misinterpret the depth of Confucianism and focused mainly on the ethical and moral aspects; thereby categorizing it as a philosophy rather than a religion.

Tucker goes on to provide reasons for the view of Confucianism as a religion rather than a moral philosophy. While she concurs that it has social, ethical, and political dimensions, these are, in her estimation, "… not separate from philosophical and religious concerns, which permeate the tradition. To ignore or place these concerns outside Confucianism is to attenuate and even distort the rich and varied dimensions of the tradition."

This is in contrast to scholars like McMurrin (1982) who states that, "Confucianism, which always exhibited a strong humanistic character with its primary concern for ethics and government, has commonly been regarded as a moral philosophy rather than a religion…"

However, McMurrin also goes on to qualify this view with a broader perception of the religious nature of Confucianism. "Nevertheless, despite its quite consistent opposition to the supernaturalism that has commonly characterized religion & #8230;philosophic Confucianism has always possessed certain qualities of a religious nature."

This view tends to suggest that Confucianism can be considered as both a philosophy, in that it is an inquiry into the meaning of human existence, as well as a religion. However, we have to go further and inquire what these "certain qualities of a religious nature" are that McMurrin refers to?

This important question is answered to a great extent by Tucker. In her study, Religious Dimensions of Confucianism: Cosmology and Cultivation ( 1998) she refers to the following aspects that make Confucianism a religion.

Religion in its broadest sense is a means whereby human beings, recognizing the limitations of phenomenal reality, undertake specific practices to effect self-transformation within a cosmological context. This is not simply a passing or superficial enterprise but one that is all encompassing. In these general terms, Confucianism can certainly be regarded as religious in the sense that the primary activity of Confucians is the establishing of moral reflection and spiritual awareness within the changes of cosmological processes.

Tucker therefore makes a strong case for the religious nature of Confucianism. However, one should also take into account her view or definition of religion. Tucker comments that, "… the anthropocosmic worldview of Confucianism does not fit easily into Western theological categories such as immanence and transcendence…"

This again presents a problem as what Tucker is in fact suggesting is that if we were to accept that Confucianism is a religion then we have to adjust our view and definition of religion.

This brings us to the point that was mentioned in the introduction of this paper; namely that the answer to the question of whether Confucianism is a religion rather than a pragmatic form of philosophy lies in the interpretation of the concept of religion. In the above quotation Tucker has clearly stated that the concept of imminence and transcendence, which are considered as essential aspects of the Western definition of religion, are not easily discernable in the philosophy of Confucianism. On the other hand Tucker makes a valid point, in that there can be many different views of what religion is and how it is experienced by different cultures may differ as well. It is in this sense that Tucker goes on to substantiate her claim for the religious nature of Confucianism by stating that, "Thus, I am proposing instead the notion of cosmology and cultivation as a mutually interacting dialectic at the heart of the Confucian tradition. This dialectic occurs within the threefold relationship of heaven, earth, and human beings."

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, it is very difficult to determine to provide any definitive answer to this question. As has been shown in this discussion, the understanding of whether Confucianism is a philosophy or a religion is obscured and problematized by different perceptions and interpretations of the meaning and nature of religion that have to be taken into account; for example, Tuckers view that there has been a possible distortion of interpretation of Confucianism by Western critics. This is countered by others who state clearly and categorically that Confucianism is a pragmatic philosophy and not a religion per se. This also is linked by some scholars to the style of pragmatic secular religion that has been popularized by Dewey and others. In a more modern and postmodern context we have the view that critiques all modern humanistic religions as not being true to the view of religion as essentially transcendent.

Based on the literature one could make a case for Confucianism as both a philosophy and a religion -- but once again this would depend on the definition of terms.

In the final analysis one should take heed of critics like Liu Shu-hsien, John Berthrong and Leonard Swidler (2003). They refer to the positive aspects of this debate in that they see it as opening up a much needed dialogue between Western and Eastern points-of-view. "…there would not be new dialogues without new controversies joining the list of older debating between Confucians and Western philosophers and theologians."

In other word, the debate about whether Confucianism is a religion or a philosophy open up areas of potentially fruitful discussion and forces us to reexamine and question our preconceptions and interpretations about religion and philosophy.