This paper examines the challenge of defining terrorism by comparing four prominent definitions — from scholar Alex Peter Schmid, the Department of Homeland Security, the State Department (Title 22 U.S.C. § 2656f), and R.P. Hoffman — identifying their strengths and shortcomings. It then explores how terrorist organizations justify violence through ideological indoctrination and material motivations. Finally, it analyzes the structural characteristics of terrorist networks, including hierarchical models, cell-based systems, and leaderless organizations, noting how each structure affects operational security and strategic capacity. Together, these sections provide a concise introduction to the conceptual and organizational dimensions of terrorism.
Hundreds of definitions of terrorism have been issued by scholars across different disciplines and by government agencies worldwide. There is no generally accepted definition for terrorism, although international law makes use of a legally recognized version of the term. After gathering and analyzing hundreds of such definitions, Alex Peter Schmid offered a definition that, in his view, eliminated the numerous ambiguities and misunderstandings that previous definitions had created:
"Terrorism is a method of combat in which random or symbolic victims serve as an instrumental target of violence. These instrumental victims share group or class characteristics which form the basis for their selection for victimization. Through previous use of violence or the credible threat of violence, other members of that group or class are put in a state of chronic fear (terror)…."
The following two definitions, used by U.S. government agencies, state the following:
Department of Homeland Security — Federal Emergency Management Agency: "Terrorism is the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the criminal laws of the United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion, or ransom."
State Department (Title 22 of the United States Code, Section 2656f(d)): "The term terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience." (U.S. Dep. of State, 2004, "Patterns of Global Terrorism")
R.P. Hoffman's definition of terrorism: "Terrorism is a purposeful political activity which is directed toward the creation of a general climate of fear, and is designed to influence, in ways desired by the protagonist, other human beings and, through them, some course of events."
Most of the definitions above — all four included — share the common concept of "violence" or "force." The definition used by the Department of Homeland Security does not specify the type of purpose — political or general — while Hoffman categorizes the purposes of terrorism explicitly as "political." Title 22 of the United States Code adds the concept of "premeditation" to that of "political" motivation in its definition of terrorism. The Department of Homeland Security further limits its definition to acts committed in violation of U.S. criminal laws, thereby restricting its scope to terrorist acts committed on U.S. soil. The State Department's definition, meanwhile, does not clarify the relationship between victims of terrorism and the targeted audience.
Schmid offered the most comprehensive definition, though it became exhaustive and thus overstepped the boundaries of a classic definition. He supported his choice of extensive terminology with the argument that it was necessary to eliminate double standards and competing interpretations. The only definition among the four that specifies the nature of targets is the State Department's: "noncombatant."
The State Department's definition is the least satisfactory of the four because it excludes noncombatant forces and draws a distinction between national and subnational groups. Targets such as unarmed soldiers who become victims of violence for the purpose of creating terror are thus excluded from this definition. The distinction between authors of terrorist acts and agents of terrorist acts also requires further explanation, since the definition specifies authors as being subnational or clandestine agents.
"How terrorists justify violence ideologically and materially"
"Hierarchical, cell-based, and leaderless group structures"
You’re 61% through this paper. Sign up to read the remaining 2 sections.
Sign Up Now — Instant Access Already a member? Log inAlways verify citation format against your institution’s current style guide requirements.