Modern Terrorism: Definitions, Sources, and Global Strategy

Definitions of Modern Terrorism

The U.S. State Department defines modern terrorism as "premeditated and politically motivated violence by sub-national groups or clandestine agents against non-combatant targets," often intended to influence a particular audience.^[1] The Federal Bureau of Investigation describes it as "the use of serious violence against persons or property, or the threat to use such violence, to intimidate or coerce a government, the public, or any section of the public in order to promote political, social, or ideological objectives."

The British government's longstanding formulation defines modern terrorism as "the use of violence for the purpose of putting the public or any section of the public in fear." United States domestic law, U.S. Code Title 18, Section 2331, provides a legal definition of international terrorism as used in U.S. courts.^[2] It denotes "violent acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or any State, or... if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or of any State."

The statute further specifies that such acts appear to pursue goals "to intimidate or coerce a civilian population, to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion, or to affect the conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping," and that such acts occur mainly outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States or transcend national boundaries. Section 2332 provides a strict definition of modern terrorism as acts "transcending national boundaries, such as killing, kidnapping, and maiming."

International law, on the other hand, does not define terrorism explicitly but proscribes specific conduct central or related to terrorist activities. It uses varying language when referring to intent or motivation to influence certain political persons.^[3]

Sources of Modern Terrorism

The primary sources of modern terrorism are Islamic extremism and Al-Qaeda, whose ideological roots extend back to the 13th century. During the reign of Charlemagne in Europe, the court of Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad was unrivalled as a patron of the arts, philosophy, and literature. The West and the seat of the Islamic world coexisted in relative harmony until the Mongols crushed Baghdad and its civilization in 1258.^[4] This catastrophe gave rise to the concept of jihad — a physical struggle to defend Islam against its enemies — a concept that has been transmitted to modern terrorists.

Believers in Islam consider their religion perfect. Islamic theologians therefore perceive the destruction of their caliphate as an imperfection. The Al-Qaeda ideology — a puritanical form of Islam — evolved from this perception. The Wahhabism movement contributed significantly to this evolution. In the 18th century, Saudi cleric Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab condemned all deviation from the original precepts and practices of the Quran as blasphemous. He allied himself with the Saudi shaykhs, who later acquired power over the Arabian Peninsula in 1932.

The Salafism movement of the 19th century also contributed to the Al-Qaeda ideology. It draws from the principles of first-generation Muslims, called the salaf-al-saliheen, meaning "pious ancestors." Wahhabism and Salafism, though not terrorist in origin, later assumed radical tendencies that had violent consequences.^[5]

Contemporary Terrorism

Political Islam began to take its current shape with the Iranian Revolution of 1979.^[6] For more than half a century, it evolved from secular Arab nationalism under Nasser, to a Marxist-leftist force, to what it is today. Many observers believe that its current form is likely to last longer than previous iterations, as it is the product of over a century of evolution with the Salafi concept at its core.

Several other factors appear to ensure the longevity of Islamic extremism. One is that the anti-Soviet struggle in Afghanistan trained and prepared terrorists and served as a model of the successful expulsion of a foreign occupant. The presence of U.S. military forces in Saudi Arabia from 1990 to 1991 became the occasion to demand the expulsion of "the infidel" from Muslim holy lands. Muslims were further incensed by the Western occupation of the seat of the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad.

Additional contributing factors include Western authoritarian behavior in many Muslim countries, these powers' cynical use of Islam to establish their own legitimacy, their failure to institute economic and political reforms, and the impact of the Arab-Israeli conflict. This conflict became a symbol of Muslim humiliation not only in the Arab world but far beyond it. To Islamic extremists, it represents a manifestation of a Zionist-Crusader alliance against Islam itself.^[7]