This paper examines a landmark 1993 study by Anderson and Ricks on functional illiteracy within public sector human resource management. The study surveyed 1,215 local government offices to determine how frequently agencies knowingly hired basic-skills deficient (BSD) workers, what factors predicted such hiring practices, and what consequences followed in the workplace. This report reviews the study's quantitative research methods, including its use of chi-square tests and one-way ANOVA, evaluates the appropriateness of those statistical choices, summarizes key findings on geographic and labor market predictors of BSD hiring, and discusses implications for worker stratification — including the potential emergence of a worker caste system in certain government agencies.
The paper demonstrates critical appraisal of quantitative research methods. Rather than simply restating findings, it interrogates whether the statistical tools chosen (chi-square for categorical/ordinal comparisons, one-way ANOVA for group differences) were justified given the data's nature, the sampling strategy, and potential sources of bias. This is a core skill in research methods coursework at the graduate level.
The paper is organized into four substantive sections mirroring a standard research report: an introduction establishing the study's significance, a methods section describing the survey instrument and sample, a results section reporting key statistical findings, and a discussion section evaluating methodological choices and broader implications. A brief concluding paragraph connects the findings to historical context — the Great Migration — adding interpretive depth without introducing unsupported claims.
Anderson and Ricks (1993) examined the role of illiteracy in determining worker status within the public sector, in part because it had not been done before. They were interested in understanding how worker stratification was determined, after scholars had raised the possibility of a worker caste system within government agencies. This issue remains relevant today, given an increasingly diverse workforce — both ethnically and linguistically. This report analyzes the research methods used by Anderson and Ricks (1993) and summarizes their findings.
The sample studied by Anderson and Ricks (1993) consisted of human resource professionals currently engaged in managing employees in the public sector. A 41-item questionnaire was used to assess the level of functional literacy these managers were observing on the job, with functional literacy defined as having the basic English reading, writing, and comprehension skills necessary to perform a specific job. Survey respondents were also queried about problems caused in the workplace by illiteracy and whether remedial actions were being taken to address deficiencies. The survey instruments were mailed to a random sample of 1,215 local government offices, representing 922 cities, 263 counties, and 30 special districts.
The response rate to the surveys was 44%, which was much higher than expected (Anderson and Ricks, 1993). A total of 398 cities, 122 counties, and 13 special districts returned completed surveys. Based on the demographic information included in the surveys, close to 48% of all employees represented by the survey respondents were members of a collective bargaining organization. A comparison between surveys received early and late revealed no difference in agency characteristics. The percentage of union employees represented by survey respondents, and the absence of a demographic difference between early and late respondents, were interpreted by Anderson and Ricks as indicating no obvious bias in the survey sample.
Of the 533 agencies responding to the survey, 24% knowingly hired basic-skills deficient (BSD) workers (Anderson and Ricks, 1993). Another 37% did not hire BSD workers but were aware that such employees had been hired before their deficiencies were discovered. Approximately 16% did not hire BSD workers but would contract with companies that did.
To determine whether the prevalence of BSD workers was influenced by geographic location, Anderson and Ricks (1993) used chi-square tests to test for significant differences. Their findings revealed that the Southeast and northern Midwest regions of the United States were more likely to employ BSD workers (p < 0.01). Also examined were jurisdiction (p > 0.10), local unemployment conditions (p > 0.40), and agency size (p > 0.05); no significant differences were found in these variables, although agency size showed a trend toward significance. The authors also compared unionized, partially unionized, and non-unionized agencies and found no significant difference (p > 0.05) unless they grouped unionized and partially unionized agencies together for the comparison (p < 0.01).
Overall, agencies that hired BSD workers were more likely to be non-union (p < 0.01), located in areas with high unemployment (p < 0.001), and situated in the Southeast and northern Midwest (p < 0.001). By comparison, agency size and jurisdiction did not predict the prevalence of BSD workers.
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine significant interactions between agencies intentionally hiring BSD workers for low-level positions and suspected dependent variables (Anderson and Ricks, 1993). This agency group experienced more problems with BSD workers (p < 0.001), in part because BSD workers were unable to comprehend rules and policies. However, these agencies encountered few problems when promoting these same employees (p < 0.001), despite BSD workers having higher rates of absenteeism, accidents, and job loss across all agency types. The authors noted that increased accident rates tend to be associated with low-skill jobs. These agencies were also more likely to adapt the job to the BSD employee's skill level through de-skilling (p < 0.01), rather than provide basic skills training (p < 0.05).
The survey utilized a Likert scale, and the data collected were therefore primarily ordinal in nature (Anderson and Ricks, 1993). The grouping of survey respondents by BSD worker hiring policies created distinct categories. The use of chi-square to test for significant interactions between categories and ordinal data was therefore appropriate. The one-way ANOVA can be applied to ordinal data by treating agency categories as independent variables; however, the data must meet certain assumptions before ANOVA is used. Bias must be minimized, independent variables must be truly independent, data must be randomly sampled, and variance must be equivalent across all variables. Regarding the bias requirement, the authors examined whether unionization was over- or under-represented in the data and whether significant differences existed between early and late respondents, finding no evidence of bias. The authors also limited the ANOVA analysis to one independent variable. Given the lack of evidence for bias, the data can reasonably be assumed to have been randomly sampled. No information was provided concerning the magnitude of variance, so this assumption could not be fully evaluated. The use of chi-square and one-way ANOVA therefore appears to have been appropriate given what is known about the data.
Based on their findings, Anderson and Ricks (1993) noted a troubling trend. The agencies that knowingly hired BSD workers tended to hold a philosophical view that government agencies will always need a ready pool of unskilled labor. When this view is combined with the same agencies' tendency to de-skill jobs to meet the functional literacy level of a BSD worker — rather than provide skills training — there appears to be substantial support for the existence of a worker caste system within some government agencies. Importantly, these agencies tended to be concentrated geographically in the Southeastern and upper Midwestern United States.
These results are interesting in light of the Great Migration of African-Americans out of the South, which began during World War I and lasted until the early 1970s (History Channel, 2013). Due to great demand for industrial workers in the Northern United States, the Black populations of Chicago and Detroit grew by 148% and 611%, respectively. Given this history, it is difficult not to consider whether the human resource management attitudes prevalent in the South also migrated north along with the population.
Anderson, Claire J., and Ricks, Betty Roper. (1993). Illiteracy — The neglected enemy in public service. Public Personnel Management, 22(1), 137–152.
History Channel. (2013). Great migration. History.com. Retrieved February 13, 2013, from
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