Leadership Development and School Improvement Strategies

Introduction: Rethinking the Principal's Role

Effective schools are the key to America's future and to its ability to maintain a competitive advantage. The future of the nation depends on maximizing students' ability to learn, and improving schools is an important goal that concerns everyone. School administration plays a critical role in providing a learning environment that maximizes the learning potential of every student. The principal is often viewed as the most important individual in achieving this goal.

When a school succeeds, the principal is frequently credited with leading it to a successful outcome. When a school fails, the principal is often the one blamed. One cannot underestimate the importance of the principal in shaping school outcomes. Principals set the policies and tone that drive staff in their daily routines, establish school vision and objectives, and oversee the implementation of plans to help schools achieve their goals. Older learning models placed primary emphasis on the school principal as the singular driver of success in the school environment.

Recent research diverges from these traditional views. New paradigms recognize that, although one cannot minimize the role of the principal in building an effective school system, the principal is not the only important member of the team. Recent studies focus on the role of the principal as a facilitator of leadership among all members of the staff, recognizing the importance of the teacher as a leader in the classroom. The effective principal uses the talents of the entire staff to reach maximum potential.

This paper explores current research into the ability of principals to build effective school leadership by utilizing the talents of other staff members. It examines the most recent studies in this changing paradigm and supports the thesis that effective leadership involves more than one's own skills — it involves the ability to make the most of others' talents as well. It examines ways in which principals and other school administrators can improve the leadership abilities of staff members by focusing on a team approach to leadership, rather than focusing solely on the leadership potential of administrative staff.

The purpose of this research is to help find ways to build more effective schools by increasing students' learning potential. It focuses on how principals can create an environment that will maximize the school's capacity to help students achieve their learning goals.

Leadership is the key to building effective schools. Research has long focused on the principal as the key school leader; however, there are others whose leadership ability also determines the effectiveness of the school system (Spillane, 2004). Leadership in schools goes beyond theory and is represented in the daily practice of the school setting (Spillane, 2004). It is an active, rather than a passive, force.

Teachers interact with students far more than principals and administrators do. They play an active leadership role in curriculum development. While it is often the principal or administrator who sets the curriculum, teacher interaction can enhance the principal's perspective so that lessons become meaningful to students (Spillane, 2004). Listening to the ideas and perspectives of teachers is therefore an important leadership task for principals. This type of interaction highlights the importance of staff members beyond the principal in terms of leadership duties. In practice, while the principal and other administrators form the vision, teachers provide the practical feedback that makes that vision a reality in the classroom (Spillane, 2004). Leadership is, in practice, distributed among various levels of staff.

Building School Capacity for Learning

Many principals are defined by their managerial abilities rather than by their work in instructional improvement (Supovitz, 2000). The principal does far more than manage the budget. Over the course of a day, they serve as servant-leader, organizational and social architect, educator, morale officer, moral advocate, child advocate, social worker, community activist, and crisis negotiator (Spillane, 2004). They must do all this while striving to raise student test scores and enhance the school's effectiveness in academic achievement.

Schools are beginning to adopt the idea of team leadership in response to these demands. Under this model, leadership responsibilities and tasks are divided among staff, with each person responsible for a portion of the overall work — all under administrative guidance to ensure consistency with the school's goals and vision. This approach makes teachers and other staff members part of the team, giving them ownership in the overall functioning of the school. Under this model, the principal acts as a shepherd ensuring that everyone stays on track (Spillane, 2004).

Competent teachers are necessary for effective classroom settings (Youngs & King, 2002). Every teacher adds to the school's capacity to produce an effective learning environment. This capacity encompasses several aspects: the teachers' individual knowledge, skills, and personalities that they bring to the classroom; the existence of adequate resources and an organized school atmosphere; and coherent learning goals directed toward achievement. School learning capacity is reduced when there is a lack of coherence among staff (Youngs & King, 2002). Everyone must work toward the same goals consistently in order to achieve maximum school capacity, and Youngs and King emphasize the importance of staff development in helping to achieve these goals.

Within any social organization, every member must seek to define his or her own role and place within the structure of the organization. In the school setting, roles have long been viewed as predefined by long-standing traditions in the educational system — based on a hierarchical, authoritarian model in which the teacher is subordinate to the principal, the principal is subordinate to the superintendent, and so on. Under this model, each level of the organizational hierarchy submits to the level above, leaving little room for self-determination or meaningful contribution to the overall structure. Mandates and changes are passed from the top down. This model of school leadership survived well into the 1990s (Clabaugh & Rozycki, 1990). It created an inefficient system that made poor use of school resources and talent.

Until the 1990s, research focused on how to improve the leadership skills of principals and other school administrators. During that decade, the focus began to shift from the individual to the school as an organizational system, emphasizing social interactions and hierarchical relationships. It became accepted that the school system was not fundamentally different from any other organization that produces a product. Researchers began to apply corporate leadership principles to the school system, advancing the idea that the same leadership principles that apply to any goal-oriented organization also apply to schools.

It is now recognized that a school culture in which learning potential is maximized consists of several key elements. These include an inspired, clear, and challenging school vision; instruction, learning opportunities, and assessments linked to that vision; adequate time for teachers and students to do their work well; close relationships among teachers, students, and other staff; data-driven decision-making systems; and district-level flexibility and support (Brown, 2004). These elements are considered most important for building strong schools that provide an excellent learning environment.

These key elements make clear that the school is a learning organization — not only from the student's perspective, but also in terms of continually learning and refining educational techniques at all levels. Brandt (2003) offers ten ways to determine whether a school meets the criteria of a learning organization. Such an organization encourages adaptive behavior in response to differing circumstances; has challenging but achievable objectives; allows members to accurately identify the organization's stages of development; can collect, process, and act upon relevant information; and has the knowledge base for creating new ideas.

Learning organizations are dynamic and in a constant process of evolution. They frequently exchange information with external sources — through educational workshops, in-services, and conferences. They seek feedback on their products and services, which in the school context means gathering detailed feedback from teachers, students, and parents rather than relying solely on standardized test scores. They continually refine their basic processes and integrate information obtained from various resources (Brandt, 2003). Learning organizations also create a supportive, rather than a restrictive, organizational culture where people are allowed to grow and express their ideas.

The final characteristic of a learning organization is that it represents an open, rather than a closed, system (Brandt, 2003). Old paradigms viewed the school as a closed system where tradition often determined policy and impeded the integration of new information — creating followers rather than leaders. The new learning organization emphasizes the development of leadership potential in every individual within the system. Every staff member is seen as an important part of the learning team with valuable experience and input to share. This new paradigm is the basis for team leadership development in school systems.

Role Definition in Team Building

Under older educational paradigms, students were viewed as recipients of a curriculum handed down from above. The new school model views the student as an important part of the learning team (McLeod, 2003). Diversity is valued rather than discouraged, and the diverse attitudes and views of students are taken into consideration in curriculum development and teaching methods. Messages from popular culture affect students and the way in which they learn — including concerns about social injustice and cultural relevance (Gause, 2004). Including students as part of the learning team means developing a curriculum that is relevant to the student population and reflects their interests, making them far more likely to engage with the material.

Team teaching is among the most significant recent trends in curriculum development and cooperative education. It refers to a course taught by two or more teachers who take turns presenting material and assisting with classroom duties (Leavitt, 2006). This teaching style requires teachers to step outside their individual classrooms and explore new methods of presenting material in collaboration with colleagues. It discourages professional isolation and encourages staff development through the active sharing of ideas and techniques.

Team teaching places all members of the staff on an equal footing and encourages the development of leadership skills among all of them. Staff members become active contributors to the evolution of teaching practices within the school. Principals who encourage team teaching develop greater team cohesion and a stronger sense of importance among staff (Leavitt, 2006). Team teaching is therefore an excellent vehicle for developing leadership skills throughout the teaching staff.

The concept of team teaching is not new — it has existed since the mid-1990s, at the height of educational reform (Berenstein, 2006). However, its practical implementation is relatively recent, as are many of the ideas emerging from research into school administration and the new leadership paradigm. Carpenter, Crawford, & Walden (2007) compared team teaching with solo teaching and found no significant difference in student test scores between the two methods; however, the study did find that students were more comfortable with the team approach.

Several models of team teaching exist. The model referenced above involves a single subject taught by more than one teacher. However, collaborative teaching takes many forms. It can mean integrating subject matter across courses so that there is thematic consistency, or developing curricular "themes" that give students a sense of coherence rather than a collection of seemingly unrelated studies (Berenstein, 2006). The principal can play a key role in achieving integration across academic subjects, helping to create an interconnected whole rather than a series of disconnected pieces — an approach that helps students understand how knowledge relates to real-world settings.

The effective school leader maintains an understanding of the school system's overall vision. Teachers, by contrast, are often more focused on what happens within the classroom. This difference in perspective must be reconciled if team leadership is to be achieved. The principal who wishes to enhance the leadership skills of other staff members must keep these differences in perspective at the forefront of any structural changes. Research shows that the old style of authoritarian leadership is no longer an acceptable method of school administration, and new leadership models encourage the development of a team model throughout the school.

This new approach to school administration means sharing leadership roles with many other members of the organization. Teachers and students are considered integral parts of the school leadership team. This requires the principal to be willing to listen to opinions other than his or her own and to integrate information from others into the school vision — creating a functioning whole in which all parts move toward a common goal. This is not always an easy task, yet school administrators must face this challenge daily to make the team leadership approach work effectively for everyone.

Under a program called Participatory School Administration, Leadership, and Management (PSALM), various stakeholders participate in the management of the school system (Gamage & San Antonio, 2006). Research found that allowing teachers and other stakeholders to participate in school administration resulted in higher satisfaction, motivation, morale, and self-esteem. Participatory management gives teachers a sense of ownership in school performance (Gamage & San Antonio, 2006).

When discussion of administrative issues turns to stakeholders, it begins to sound more like a corporate boardroom than a traditional school system. However, research has demonstrated that principles effective in corporations also apply to effective school systems (Beasley, 2008). Team approaches improve teacher retention by increasing job satisfaction, just as they do in the corporate world (Beasley, 2008). This allows schools to retain the brightest and most experienced staff members, enabling them to grow professionally over the long term. Teacher retention in turn improves student outcomes by building relationships and a support system (Beasley, 2008). This focus on the collective good rather than on the individual is part of a broader social change occurring throughout society (Moos & Huber, 2007).

The principal or other school administrator must ensure that the results of new leadership paradigms are quantifiable. Community involvement and participation in school leadership have been shown to improve test scores among primary schools in the United States (Anderson, 2008). Collaborative leadership that includes every member of the school as a leader with skills to develop produces positive outcomes that reach beyond the school walls and into the community.

The adoption of collaborative leadership represents an organizational change within the school system. One of the most difficult tasks is knowing how to begin the change process. Halverson (2005a) examined several artifacts that principals used to initiate the development of collaborative leadership among staff. The first was the use of benchmarks for teachers — benchmarks that went beyond academic scores to include items such as greater student participation and decreased tardiness. The second artifact was the use of a diverse student population to develop greater cultural integration. Feedback was also used to help improve reading scores (Halverson, 2005a). While these artifacts are not new, Halverson found them used in new ways that promote teacher leadership within the school systems examined.

Conclusion

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Supovitz, J. (2000). Manage less, lead more. Principal Leadership (Middle School Ed.), 1(3), 14–19.

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