The Psychology of Memory: Stages, Definitions, and Science

Introduction to Memory

Memory is generally viewed as some type of physical thing stored in the brain (Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019). Given this view, popular culture has created the notion that memory is a subjective, personal experience that can be recalled at any time and at will. This belief has generated concerns and questions about the maximum number of memories a person can hold. However, the field of psychology offers different conceptualizations of memory — ones largely fueled by advances in the science of memory and by the discipline of psychology itself. Additionally, recent technological advancements continue to shape people's views and definitions of memory. A proper understanding of memory requires consideration of these different conceptualizations as well as the contributions of influential psychologists such as Elizabeth Loftus. This paper examines the concept of memory based on Loftus's work and recent advances in the field of psychology.

Defining Memory: Popular Culture vs. Psychology

As previously mentioned, memory is popularly viewed as a subjective, personal experience that can be retrieved at will. This view generates questions about the amount of memories people can have and retrieve. It also fails to capture the concept holistically, since people forget their experiences at times. Over the past few decades, the definition of memory has evolved due to advances in information technology and the field of psychology. Advances in the science of memory have contributed to the emergence of the view that memory is not a fixed thing or experience stored in the brain (Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019). This is primarily because memory is considered a chemical process between neurons. Since these chemical processes are not static, memory is essentially not fixed.

Zlotnik & Vansintjan (2019) define memory as the faculty of coding, storing, and retrieving information. This process is shaped by chemical changes between neurons, which contribute to the different attributes of this concept. Given the role these chemical processes play, memory is essentially the capacity with which people store and retrieve information. People have different capacities at different times to code, store, and retrieve information. According to Huffman, Dowdell, & Sanderson (2018), memory is the process by which information or experience is coded, stored, and retrieved. From a psychological perspective, memory is regarded as the persistence of learning over time. Psychologists tend to view memory as learning that persists because it encompasses all processes involved in learning. Similar to learning, the three processes underlying memory are encoding, storing, and retrieving information. In addition, psychologists view memory as a constructive process of organizing and sharing information — one that sometimes results in serious errors and biases.

Psychologists' view of memory incorporates recent advances in technology and science. Memory is not viewed as a static, subjective personal experience stored in the brain, but rather as a process affected by chemical changes between neurons. Current definitions of memory are based on the idea that it is distributed across a wide network of interconnected neurons throughout the brain. These neurons are activated to process information as they work simultaneously. The incorporation of these various neurons and chemical processes into the learning framework therefore provides a basis for an accurate conceptualization and definition of memory. The popular view of memory as a static and subjective personal experience is erroneous because it fails to consider the chemical processes between neurons that underlie encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Sensory Memory

Based on the work of Loftus, memory essentially requires three distinct stages (Huffman, Dowdell, & Sanderson, 2018). Loftus introduced the concept of three-stage memory to demonstrate the different phases of holding and storing information. These phases also explain differences in how information is stored over different periods of time. As described on Wikipedia's overview of memory, the three-stage model has become a foundational framework in cognitive psychology.

The first phase in the three-stage memory model is sensory memory, which refers to the initial storage of everything we hear, see, smell, or touch. Unlike the other phases of memory, sensory memory is not consciously controlled (Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019). Because it is the first stage, information in sensory memory does not last for a long period of time — it stays just long enough for the brain to locate relevant bits of information and transfer them to the next phase. Visual information, known as iconic memory, stays in sensory memory for approximately one-half of a second before fading rapidly. Auditory information, known as echoic memory, stays for approximately four seconds. Both are fleeting because the brain cannot process all incoming stimuli simultaneously. Once visual and auditory stimuli enter the brain, lower brain centers process them within seconds to determine whether they are sufficiently important to be transferred to the level of conscious awareness. While sensory memory was initially thought to have unlimited capacity, recent findings have shown that it is limited, as stored images have been found to be fuzzier than initially believed.

Conclusion

Memory is a term used to refer to the process of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Conceptualizations of this term have continued to evolve due to advances in the science of memory and the field of psychology in general. Despite this evolution, popular culture still portrays memory as a static, subjective personal experience that is retrieved on demand. This definition is not an accurate picture of what memory entails because it does not account for the chemical processes between neurons. Memory is essentially complex and encompasses a three-stage process: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. These three stages differ in terms of duration and capacity for processing and storing information. The differences in information processing and storage across these stages directly affect our conscious awareness and responses to stimuli.