Socrates and Pythagoras: Lives, Teachings, and Legacy

Introduction

The name of Pythagoras is familiar to every school child, as one of the first theorems learned in geometry is named after this great mathematician and philosopher. Many consider Pythagoras of Samos the first pure mathematician. The mathematical achievements of this extremely important figure are, however, hardly known compared to those of later Greek mathematicians who left behind written works. No evidence of any book authored by Pythagoras has survived. This may have something to do with the half-religious, half-scientific society he led, which followed a strict code of secrecy, leaving Pythagoras as a mysterious figure. Some details of his life have been provided by other authors, many of whom attributed divine powers to him. While there is broad agreement on the general events of his life, differences in dates and ongoing disputes mean that some historians regard much of this information as legend. Given how early a period of written history it represents, however, it retains considerable significance.

Pythagoras of Samos: Life and Travels

Pythagoras was born in 569 BC in Samos, to Mnesarchus of Tyre and Pythias of Samos. Mnesarchus was a merchant, and so Pythagoras had the opportunity to visit many lands as a child traveling with his father. Beyond these facts, very little is known about his childhood. There is no doubt that he received a proper education, and there is evidence that Pythagoras was influenced by three philosophers, the most important of whom was Pherkydes. Another significant influence was Thales, and it is believed that it was Thales who first stoked Pythagoras's interest in mathematics. The pupil of Thales, Anaximander, is also believed to have contributed many ideas in geometry and cosmology that would later influence the views of Pythagoras. As a young man, Pythagoras moved to Egypt and remained there until the Persians invaded and he was taken prisoner.

In 520 BC, Pythagoras returned to Samos from Babylon — though how he escaped captivity is unknown — and shortly afterward traveled to Crete, where he studied its system of laws before returning to Samos. He subsequently moved to Southern Italy, though the exact date of this move is disputed.

The Pythagorean Society and Its Teachings

Pythagoras founded his religious and philosophical school in Croton in Southern Italy and attracted many followers. He served as the head of this society, and its inner circle was known as the mathematikoi. Members of the mathematikoi lived permanently within the community, were vegetarians, and held no personal possessions. Pythagoras was their teacher, and the society operated under strict rules. The exact date of Pythagoras's death is unclear, though some historians take 469 BC as the year of his demise, based on changes observed in the society that could not have occurred while he was still alive.

The moral teachings of Pythagoras are preserved in seventy-one lines known as the Golden Words. These teachings call upon individuals to respect their parents and gods, to lead a life of abstinence, and to be prudent in thought and action. Pythagoras believed in the transmigration of souls and held that the universe was created out of chaos by the imposition of measure and harmony. He also believed that numbers were the very basis of the universe — not merely symbols of quantitative relations, but sacred entities in their own right. His contributions to the understanding of celestial movement include what may be the earliest conception of the rotation of the earth on its axis while simultaneously revolving around the sun.

Socrates of Athens: Life and Character

The society under Pythagoras also made significant contributions in the field of medicine. It is believed that the modern Hippocratic Oath taken by physicians has its origins in this community. Additionally, a revival of Pythagorean thought during the early Christian era incorporated ideas from Jewish and Hellenistic thought, adding to the mystical dimension of his philosophy.

Socrates was born in 469 BC; his father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor, and it is believed that Socrates practiced his father's craft in his early years. Later in life he married Xanthippe, who became legendary for her difficult temperament, though the ascertainable facts on this point are few. The identity of his philosophy teachers remains unknown, although he was well acquainted with the doctrines of Parmenides, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and the atomists. He drew acclaim for his intellectual powers even before the age of forty, when — as reported by Plato — the oracle at Delphi declared him the wisest man in Greece. Socrates himself humbly explained this distinction by noting that while others proclaimed their knowledge without recognizing the extent of their ignorance, he was at least aware of his own.

Socrates was deeply committed to the belief that his duty lay in searching for wisdom about the right way to conduct oneself, and through this pursuit he sought to bring about the intellectual and moral improvement of Athens. In pursuit of this mission he neglected his personal affairs and spent much of his time in discussions about virtue, justice, and piety wherever the citizens of Athens gathered. He has been criticized for failing to fulfill his public duty given his considerable knowledge and talents, since he never sought public office. He was, however, widely known for his courage, which he demonstrated during the many military campaigns in which he participated.