This paper examines the role of vitamin supplements in promoting health and preventing disease, beginning with an overview of recommended dietary allowances and the population groups most at risk for vitamin deficiency. Drawing on multiple clinical studies and trials, the paper surveys documented benefits of supplementation — including improved cognitive function, reduced cancer risk, protection against stress fractures, and extended survival in Alzheimer's disease patients — alongside significant drawbacks, such as increased mortality risk from antioxidant supplements and the ineffectiveness of Vitamin D and calcium in treating osteoporosis in the elderly. The paper concludes that while supplements may benefit specific groups, natural food sources and regular exercise remain the preferred foundation of good health.
Vitamins are organic substances necessary for the proper growth and functioning of the body (Lee, 2009). They do not provide calories and are needed only in small amounts for body metabolism. They must come from food because the body does not produce them. The only exception is Vitamin D, which the body produces when exposed to sunlight. Insufficient vitamin intake can lead to disease. Causes of insufficient intake include poor nutrition, a restricted diet, or poor absorption by the intestines. Examples of diseases caused by insufficient vitamin intake include anemia, nerve and brain damage, easy and excessive bleeding, vision defects and night blindness, bone diseases, and scurvy (Lee).
The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences has disseminated the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin and mineral consumption (Lee, 2009). The recommended amounts are present in a balanced diet and will prevent vitamin deficiency diseases. Hence, a person who regularly eats a balanced diet does not need vitamin supplements. Certain groups of people are, however, unable to follow RDA guidelines and eat a balanced diet. Examples include the elderly, those with pernicious anemia or atrophic gastritis, alcoholics, those taking Orlistat, individuals on a weight-loss diet, and those suffering from diseases not attributable to vitamin deficiency. Vitamin D deficiency is common among the elderly. Those suffering from pernicious anemia and elderly individuals with atrophic gastritis lack and need Vitamin B12. Alcoholics may be deficient in thiamine, folic acid, and niacin. Those taking Orlistat or using Xenical to lose weight may not absorb fat properly and can develop deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins. Insufficient intake of folic acid and Vitamins B6 and B12 may lead to high blood levels of homocysteine and an increased risk of heart attacks. Childbearing women with inadequate intake of folic acid face the risk of birth defects in their babies (Lee).
Although vitamin deficiency diseases are uncommon in the United States, nutritionists and other health professionals recommend vitamin supplements to these special groups (Lee, 2009). Vitamin supplements also help prevent diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart attack, strokes, birth defects, and some cancers when the diet is inadequate (Lee).
The brisk sale of vitamins and minerals rose by 4% over 52 weeks, driven by present-day lifestyle and demographic trends (MMR, 2003). While nutritionists assure that an adequate diet is sufficient to provide all the body's vitamin needs, people's busy schedules deprive them of the chance to eat a balanced diet regularly. They are drawn toward fast foods, snacks, and other items that do not provide balanced nutrients, and so they turn to vitamin supplements. The population is also aging. Those who are growing older seek to remain healthy and active, and they similarly turn to vitamin supplements and calcium (MMR).
The American Association of Poison Control Centers recently confirmed that supplemental vitamins are safe to take (Kiefer, 2007). It reported that no deaths had been attributed to exposure to or ingestion of any form of vitamin supplement, whether in single or multivitamin form. The Orthomolecular Medicine News Service announced that Americans ingest more than 53 billion doses of supplemental vitamins yearly (Kiefer).
The results of a study showed that vitamin supplementation in young-to-middle-aged participants improved motor speed and sequencing ability in neurophysical tests (Evans, 2007). The researchers compared findings for 33 participants who received vitamin supplementation and 27 who were given a placebo. Their mean age was 39 years; the majority were white (72%) and held at least a college degree. Those who took vitamin supplements performed assigned tasks with increased motor speed and also displayed improved executive skills (Evans).
A study found that a common vitamin supplement, resveratrol, has the ability to suppress the formation of chemical structures called adducts in the genetic material of breast cancer cells (Rogan, 2008). The compound activates an enzyme, quinone reductase, which deactivates estrogen metabolites. The experiment was performed on cultured cells and was to be repeated in human trials. The result had a dramatic impact on the medical community's search for an effective treatment for breast cancer. This vitamin compound is found in grapes and red wine (Rogan).
A four-year study found that the use of Vitamin D and calcium supplements decreased the chances of developing cancer among postmenopausal women (Kiefer, 2007). The women participants took 1,100 IU of Vitamin D3 and 1,500 mg of calcium each day. Higher intakes of the supplements further reduced cancer risk (Kiefer).
Another study showed that these supplements help prevent stress fractures caused by bone overuse (Dye, 2008). Stress fractures tend to occur when bones are repetitively overused and stressed without sufficient time to repair themselves. This condition is more common among women than men. The study surveyed 5,201 female Navy recruits who took 2,000 mg of calcium and 800 IU of Vitamin D daily during eight weeks of basic training. During that period, 309 recruits were diagnosed with stress fractures, but those who took the supplements had a 20% lower incidence. The study concluded that Vitamin D and calcium supplementation might greatly reduce the consequences of stress fractures, including disability and financial costs. The supplements could prove to be a safe, easy, and inexpensive preventive measure that would not interfere with training goals and activities (Dye).
When begun in early childhood, Vitamin D supplementation may hinder the development of type 1 diabetes (Thompson, 2008). This was the conclusion of a meta-analysis of studies conducted by Central Manchester and Manchester Children's University Hospitals on nearly 6,500 infants. The studies showed a significant decrease in the risk of developing the disease (Thompson).
A randomized trial of 39,876 women who took Vitamin E supplementation for 10 years found a reduced risk of developing venous thromboembolism (Dye, 2007). Venous thromboembolism occurs when a blood clot in the veins becomes dislodged and travels through the bloodstream, potentially blocking circulation to the brain, heart, or lungs, making it life-threatening (Dye).
Participants who took Vitamin E supplements exhibited a 21% reduced risk of developing the disease and a 27% reduction in cases of unprovoked venous thromboembolism — that is, cases not caused by trauma, surgery, or cancer. The study also found that women with a personal or genetic history of the condition could experience a higher risk reduction of 44–49%, and therefore stand to derive greater benefit from the supplement (Dye).
Investigators from the American Academy of Neurology found that Vitamin E supplementation could extend the lives of Alzheimer's disease sufferers compared to those who did not take the supplement (Dye, 2008). This was the result of a survey of 847 men and women who had the disease for an average of five years. They took 1,000 IU of the vitamin twice a day alongside their prescribed cholinesterase inhibitor medication. The results showed that those who took Vitamin E supplements — with or without the cholinesterase inhibitor — survived 26% longer than those who did not. One investigator noted that the vitamin already demonstrated the capability of delaying the progression of moderately severe Alzheimer's disease, presenting the findings as a significant benefit to patients' longevity (Dye).
A newly identified member of the Vitamin K family may prove to be a nutritional breakthrough in the future (Zucker, 2007). Cardiologist and nutrition expert Stephen T. Sinatra stated that Vitamin K2 subtype MK-7 could direct calcium precisely where it is needed while preventing its accumulation in artery walls. MK-7 would be valuable to clinicians as it protects against both osteoporosis and arterial calcification — a condition that commonly contributes to arterial plaques, rupture, heart attacks, and stroke (Zucker).
Vitamin K is found in green leafy vegetables, from which it is synthesized (Zucker, 2007). It was discovered by Danish scientists in 1929 to play a role in blood coagulation. Vitamin K2 helps in the construction of healthy bones. The body naturally uses a protein called osteocalcin to carry calcium from the blood and attach it to the bone matrix. Without Vitamin K2, calcium is deposited on arterial walls instead (Zucker).
MK-7 is naturally produced in the body by beneficial bacteria, though only in limited amounts from Vitamin K (Zucker, 2007). Food is the other primary source, especially a Japanese fermented soybean dish called natto. Lower incidence of osteoporosis has been reported in Tokyo, where the dish is popular. However, natto does not have a pleasant taste for many Western palates and requires spices to improve its flavor. Cheeses are a more convenient source of MK-7, though they contain only 30–60 mcg compared to 100 grams provided by natto (Zucker).
K2 supplements have been available in health food stores in synthetic form for more than two decades (Zucker, 2007). Leon Schurgers and Cees Vermeer of the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands highlighted the superiority of MK-7 in its ability to activate specific Vitamin K proteins that direct calcium to the bones rather than the arteries. The recommended daily dosage at present is 105 mcg. Patients taking anticoagulant medications such as Coumadin should consult their doctors before taking Vitamin K supplements, as the two are contraindicated (Zucker).
According to one experiment, Vitamin D supplementation may reduce the risk of congestive heart failure (CHF) (Schleithoff, Zittermann, & Tenderich, 2006). Congestive heart failure is a chronic condition characterized by shortness of breath and fatigue, in which irregular heart function reduces the heart's ability to supply adequate blood flow and oxygen to the tissues and organs. Approximately 5 million Americans and 10 million Europeans live with CHF, and no significant improvement in disease management had been noted in the 15 years prior to the study (Schleithoff et al.).
"Antioxidant risks and null results in elderly studies"
"Mixed findings on Vitamin E and expert guidance"
Vitamin supplements have risen in sales because of the proliferation of various diseases, the aging population, daily life stresses, and the seemingly shorter time people have to attend to their health today. But natural food remains the best source of vitamins, and modern farming methods must be the focus of attention (Downey, 2003). Many studies suggest that supplements have benefits, but these appear to take effect over the long term. Research will continue to scrutinize the effectiveness and value of anything consumed as a supplement. But nothing — and no one — will be skeptical about the value and benefits of physical exertion and exercise as the preferred alternative to supplements. Those who are genuinely in peak health — athletes — would not contradict this argument (Downey).
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