. Literacy Program Review
Write a program review, approximately 8-10 pages in length that explores
(but not limited to) the following:
? The background/demographics of the school or other work environment
? The existing reading/literacy programs
? The general philosophies of the teachers, administrators, and parents
? The challenges and assets of the setting
? Curriculum guides and technical materials in use at the location
? Recommendations for the future (an action plan, including professional development opportunities and possible revisions of materials in use)


I will send a school improvement plan and an example of a literacy program review.
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1) Using the charts and other information from chapters 1 and10 in the textbook, write a 1,250-1,500 word paper explaining how you would organize a balanced literacy program for your classroom. Indicate your grade level in the paper. The grade level is 2nd grade. I use Story Town Literacy Program in my class.

2) Describe two or more instructional approaches you would include in the plan. In the description of each approach, elaborate on the following elements:

a) Purpose

b) Components

c) Theory base

d) Applications

e) Strengths

3) Referring to the chart on p. 20 in the textbook, explain which components of a balanced literacy program are satisfied by each approach you selected.

4) Include your personal beliefs about how students learn best. (Optional: Discuss issues relating to district requirements or materials available.)

5) Prepare this assignment according to the APA guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is required. Include an introduction, body, conclusion, in-text citations, and a reference page.

6) First person may be used because the paper includes personal opinions and choices.

PDF file will be uploaded and chart MUST BE FILLED OUT. ALL DIRECTIONS ARE IN THE PDF. FOLLOW THEM FULLY.
Part 1 Literacy Program Analysis Survey Please. fill out and attach essay to end as one file.
Part 2 Analyzing a School Literacy Program Paper 500 Words.
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Customer is requesting that (Boethius) completes this order.

Imagine your school is offering a $10,000 grant to purchase technology related to literacy instruction, such as e-book readers, iPods, digital storytelling software, etc. Create a proposal that explains how you would use this money to incorporate technology into your grade level literature studies.


In the proposal (minimum of 1,000 words), address the following:

1) Project title.
2) Your grade level and school demographics.
3) A summary of your proposal intent including a budget breakdown.
4) The issue being addressed.
5) An outline of the current literacy program used in your grade level.
6) The technology you would purchase to enhance the curriculum and how it would be used to achieve your results.
7) The advantages and disadvantages of incorporating this technology.
8) The targeted outcomes and results.
9) A sample lesson that address the overall integration of this technology into your literacy program.

The written proposal for the program should be no more than 500 words maximum. The Proposal for an Adult Literacy Program plan topic should address several questions, including:
a.What do you see as an important educational problem that needs to be addressed?
b.Why do you think it is an important problem for you to address?
c.How can finding a solution result in significant changes/improvements?


"Each question should be answered separately. For Outside Sources Use Internet Articles or Journal Articles, Only!"

You are to writes a 25-page paper. Reference materials are to be Journal Articles Only!

You are Designing a Specific Educational Program: Adult Literacy Program. Do Not do a broad-based program or agency that offers various programs.

Final Written Program Plan
Title Page: This must include the full title of the program
Table of Contents: This must list the main headings/subheadings, including references and appendices.
Body of the Report: Follows the template given below.
References: This must list all the works or sources cited in the body of the report.
Appendices.

Your final written program plan incorporating all of the below elements in not to exceed twenty-five (25) pages.

The final program plan will reflect the following template:
Part 1: Program Context
Background of the program problem/idea (the context of the problem or idea).
Description of the source of the problem (people, responsibilities and tasks, organization, community).
Description of the nature and extent of the problem (any documentation, literature, etc.).
Define the institutional and personal context for the program.
Describe the target population: age, grade, reading level, attention span, occupation, previous experience, motivation level, health, interests, socioeconomic status, attitudes toward school or work, previous performance levels, language, ethnic/cultural background, gender.
Identify learning-site constraints that could affect design and delivery.

Part 2: Needs Assessment
Describe the target population in terms of: age, grade, reading level, attention span, occupation, previous experience, motivation level, health, interests, socio-economic status, attitudes toward school or work, previous performance levels, language, ethnic/cultural background, gender.
Define the term "need" as it best relates to your program design activity.
Determine the basic purpose(s): Why is the needs assessment required?
Determine the type of "data" necessary to determine the actual "need."
Determine the data collection methods: How will information about needs assessment be collected? What instruments should be used during needs assessment? How should they be used? What approvals or protocols are necessary for conducting the needs assessment?
Determine how you will analyze the findings? What specific procedures and techniques will be used? How will the data be organized for analysis and presentation? How will the results be interpreted?
Sort and prioritize the identified needs: How will the needs be identified from the results of data collection and analysis? How will they be prioritized? Which specific needs require instructional intervention? Which ones require alternative interventions?
Detail the true "costs" of the needs assessment process.

Part 3: Establishing Objectives and Defining Content
"Flesh out" each specific need according to the knowledge, skills, attitudes (KAS) needed to satisfy the need.
Once the KAS objectives linked to the "needs" have been established, the next step in the process is to expand the KAS objectives into broad learning objectives. Take the knowledge, skills, attitudes identified previously for each "need" and expand and clarify through the use of descriptive verbs.
Continue to "flesh out" the learning objectives by determining the broad content tied to each of the expanded learning objectives. The key here is to think through what specific content is necessary to achieve each of the learning objectives you have identified and fleshed out for your program.
The core content identified under the objectives must be expanded upon to discover the specific data needing to be known under the objective.

Part 4: Designing Instruction
Determine content needed to achieve each established program objective.
Determine the content sequencing strategy.
Determine the learning formats to be employed.
Determine which teaching/learning methods are best suited for each established program objective.
Describe the overall instructional strategy.
Describe the instructional media chosen: what, how, and why?
Describe the instructional materials chosen: what, how, and why?
Describe the learning environment.
Describe how adult learning principles are being incorporated into the plan.
Describe how the transfer of learning principles are being incorporated into the plan.
Describe how you are fostering expertise developments through the instructional design.

Part 5: Evaluation
Establish a "purpose(s)" for your evaluation.
Establish a "focus" for the program evaluation--will you be measuring program-related issues (non-learning outcomes of training) or learning outcomes or both. If evaluating program-related issues, will you be targeting economic inputs, development activities, participant data, instructor perspectives, or learner reactions? If evaluating learning outcomes, will you be targeting first, second, or third order outcomes?
Decide the type of data (hard or soft) needed for the evaluation effort.
Determine the evaluation tools/methods.
Determine the resources and costs for evaluations.
Develop the complete budget for your program (including a break-even analysis based upon your established registration fee).
Develop the marketing/promotional strategy for your program. Be sure to identify the costs and the timeline for the strategy.
Determine the staffing needs of your program and the criteria you will follow in selecting proper staff.
Discuss your plan for obtaining the suitable facilities, arranging meeting rooms, arranging for equipment, overseeing the program arrangements on-site, opening and monitoring programs, and concluding the program.

Part 6: Program Coordination
Develop the complete budget for your program,content (including a break-even analysis based upon your established registration fee).
Develop the marketing/promotional strategy for your program. Be sure to identify the costs and the timeline for the strategy.
Determine the staffing needs of your program and the criteria you will follow in selecting proper staff.
Discuss your plan for obtaining the suitable facilities, arranging meeting rooms, arranging for equipment, overseeing the program arrangements on-site, opening and monitoring programs, and concluding the program. Be sure to use Caffarella's checklist in Exhibit 15.1, beginning on page 341, to justify the choice of facility for your program. Also use the seating arrangement possibilities in Figure 15.1 and Figure 15.2 to determine the arrangements for the various segments of your program instructional plan.


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Developing a Comprehensive Literacy Instruction



In this Paper you are to develop a comprehensive literacy instruction. The paper will help you become more aware of the concerns of the issues in teaching children's learning to read and write. This paper will focus on theoretical framework as well as the extensive practical literacy instruction program.



What is the comprehensive literacy instruction?



Comprehensive literacy instruction has four layers of meaning: 1) Love of reading. students want to read and write as much as they know how to read and write. 2) comprehensive literacy instruction relies on a sense of balance. Balance usually refers to multi-approach to teaching. like aloud read/write, shared reading/writing, guided reading/writing, and independent reading/writing. 3) Balanced program also means multi-content of instruction,. As National Reading Panel (2000) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) defined there five components as the most important to teach in reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension and fluency. 4) Our students need to learn strategies and skills that enable them to make sense of text.



Based on your working experience or your study interest, you can decide which age range your lesson plan will work for, preschool or kindergarten



The paper is one long paper (10 pages) However, you will write your paper Sections.





STEP ONE (SECTION !)



In Section 1, your first task is to outline your project of developing a comprehensive literacy instruction. Write a short introduction of your topic and how you will approach it. Secondly you need to focus on the first layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction: Love of reading. students want to read and write as much as they know how to read and write.

The first part of this paper should include the following:

A working title for the overall research project

The outline of your project. (need to clarify the grade level )

Why love in reading is so important in reading.

How to instill children's love for reading, as a teacher or parent, what are your suggestions or ideas for promoting children's motivation of reading?

Length: 2 pages

List references



STEP TWO (SECTION 2)



Now we move to the second layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction. Our goal of teaching reading is enable children to read independently. Comprehensive literacy instruction relies on a sense of balance. Balance usually refers to multi-approach to teaching. like aloud read/write, shared reading/writing, guided reading/writing, and independent reading/writing. Please explain each of the approach of reading/writing, what the role of each approach and how to balance the different approach in your teaching. Your paper should include three parts:

What the each of approach of reading/writing is?

What the role of each approach?

How to balance the different approach in your teaching?

Length: 2 pages

List references



STEP THREE (SECTION 3)



Now we move to the third layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction. Balanced program not only balance the teaching approach, also balance multi-content of instruction as well. As National Reading Panel (2000) and the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) defined there five components as the most important to teach in reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension and fluency. In this module you need to expound each of components in reading, what the role of each component in reading? How to balance all of components in your teaching. Your paper should include three parts:

What is each of the components in reading?

What is the role of each component in reading?

How to balance all of components in your teaching?

Length: 2 pages

List references



STEP FOUR (SECTION 4)



Now we move to the fourth layer of meaning in comprehensive literacy instruction. Comprehensive literacy instruction not only focuses on balanced literacy program, it also emphasizes student centered learning, as a teacher, we must make decisions about what to teach and how to teach it, so that students view reading and writing as meaning-making activities, rather than as a mere collection of skills. Students need to learn strategies and skills that enable them to make sense of text. In this module follow what you have in module3, add the strategies we need to teach for each of component.

Based on Section 3, add strategies for each part.

List references



STEP FIVE (SECTION 5)



In this section you need to write a conclusion part for your final paper. Summing up Sections 1-4

Length: 2 pages

List references

I need to determine what research has been done on African American adult males in GED or high school diploma or literacy programs. The paper I''m working on relates to a program which is intended to increase the graduation rates of this population, so key questions for the research include:

What do we know about this population''s performance in such programs?

What programs have been successful in improving the performance of African American adult males in community based or other literacy programs?

What are the elements of these programs that work best?

What funding is available for such programs?

Research supports the idea that reading and writing have the greatest impact on student achievement when they are integrated. Each of you holds different positions in your school. Some of you may not be in a classroom. Even so, you can strengthen the literacy program at your school. Use the questions to guide your responses.

In your position, how can you influence the reading-writing program at your school?
What is one strategy or activity that you could use to strengthen the reading-writing connection? Share your best idea with colleagues.
Why should writing be an integral part of a comprehensive literacy program at your school?

You are to write a 1-page summary of the article below. *Do Not Use Outside Sources.*

Adult Literacy: Eunice Askov
The National Education Goals Panel 1994 stated that, every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights responsibilities of citizenship. Although this goal was to be achieved in the United States by the year 2000, it has, unfortunately, become only political rhetoric and not reality. While many explanations for the situation could be explored, the purpose of this chapter is to focus specifically on two major issues related to adult literacy namely: assessment and evaluation of literacy, and recruitment and retention of adult learners in programs. These issues are particularly problematic given the trends toward greater accountability using quantitative measures in the conceptualization of literacy as workforce development. Exploration of these two issues may also assist in understanding why this national education goal was not reached. It is the authors view as well as the constructivists approach to adult literacy education would help to address the central issues in literacy practice.
The Problem of Definition
First, however, the definition of literacy should be explored as a basis for discussion of the two issues. The National Literacy Act of 1991 defines literacy as: an individuals ability to read, write, and speaking in English, and compute and also solve problems at the levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society, to achieve ones goal, in developed once knowledge and potential. This definition was based on an earlier, similar definition formulated by the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1986 panel of experts that led to a nationwide evaluation of the literacy abilities of young adults. This definition should be viewed, however, within historical context of an evolving concept of literacy that over time has moved from a school base model driven by the assumption that literacy for adults can be equated with that for children to a functional set of skills, or competencies to be mastered, to the more recent social and cultural notion of multiple literacies (see Merrifield, 1998, and the discussion that follows on the constructivist and social and cultural views of learning).
Nonetheless, consensus about what it means to be literate has never been entirely reached. The statement of Merriam and Cunningham, 1989 that the criteria for being literate remains elusive is as true today as a decade ago. According to Mikulecky 1987, cited in Taylors chapter on adult literacy 1989 It is unlikely that anyone will arrive at an acceptable level or criterion allowing one to accurately and usually state the number of illiterates. Some for example, Taylor and Dorsey-Gaines 1988 argue that any attempt to define literacy in this way is a political actthat literacy is not an entity, such as a predetermined set of skills or knowledge, that one either has or does not have. Similarly, Lankshear and OConnor 1999 argued that literacy is not a commodity but that literacy is practice the practice(s) people engage within routines of daily life. The author of this chapter shares this view as will become evident.
The efforts on the part of education establishment to define literacy overtime has shown a consistent propensity to take a positivists approach toward the issue. In other words, they demonstrate an underlying assumption that there are identifiable minimum skills that everyone needs to function in our society, which the skills can be measured by objective, mostly paper and pencil test, and that their acquisition equates with such objectives as, for example, the ability to compete in a global economy. There is an even more alarming tendency in the literacy feel today, however, that is created by the funding process for program development the monolithic purpose for adult literacy program seems to be job acquisition. Others stated objectives such as achieving ones goal and developing ones knowledge and potential are largely been ignored. Another way to view this issue, to which these authors subscribes, is based on a constructivists worldview that defines literacy as those skills, knowledge, and practices that are needed to function successfully in the society of couture in which the individual is situated or desires ( and has potential) to be situated. This definition implies significant variations among individuals and forces on providing adults the skills, knowledge, and practices that they find most useful for their lives. It also questions stereotypical views on what a person of a particular race, gender, class can do. This position implies taking a critical stance toward the status quo in the field of literacy today and may run counter to the current expectations of funding agencies.
Assessment and Evaluation of Literacy
How literacy is assessed (and illiterates counted) actually indicates how it is being defined. Traditionally, adult education followed a school base model of literacy in which literacy achievement was assessed and reported in terms of grade levels even though these are clearly inappropriate for adults. In fact, standardized test yielding grade level scores have been adult versions of commonly used standardized achievement test for children. Although there is disagreements in the field as to the extent or degree of the difference between children and adults as learners, clearly the more considerable amount and variation of experience that adults have acquired differentiate them sufficiently to make upgraded version of standardized achievement test for children inappropriate.
Student Assessment Models
Building on some early assessment models, including the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1986, the National Assessment of Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) defined literacy as using printed and written information to function in society, to achieve ones goals and to develop ones knowledge and potential ( Kirsch, Jungerblut, Jenkins, and Kolstad, 1993). Accordingly, the national assessment of adult literacy survey assessed literacy by analyzing the task and skills that compromise literacy behavior in the prose, qualitative, and document domains. The assumption is that skills and competencies that are assessed and mastered in one context are transferable to other context. (The rest of the commonly taught literacy skills, such as writing and speaking, were ignored possibly because they did not get their definition of literacy and/or because they could not be easily measured.) Then national assessment of the three domains were created to measure mastery of those skills on five levels with Level 3 being considered necessary to function in todays society and workplace. The national assessment of adult literacy set a trend in the assessment of literacy skills not only in United States but also internationally. The international adult literacy survey (IALS) (Organization for economic Co-operation and development {OECD}), and statistics Canada, 1995, which is the international version of national assessment of adult literacy survey, was administered in six countries (in addition to the US data from the national assessment of adult literacy survey) to provide comparative data on the mastery of literacy skills. An updated version from the same source 1997 adds a data from five additional OECD countries. Furthermore, the national assessment of adult literacy survey data have also been statistically manipulated with the U.S. Census data to provide synthetic estimates of the number of adults at each level (national Institute for literacy, 1998) in a leadership attempt to raise consciousness about literacy problems in local areas. While the national assessment of adult literacy survey definition of literacy is not yet universal, the fact that the GED testing services raised the passing score on the GED to correspond to the Level 3 of the national assessment of adult literacy survey may lead to its becomng even more prevalent as a measure of literacy. Another national assessment of adult literacy survey administration in the United States is planned for early in this century to assess progress toward universal literacy as defined by the national assessment of adult literacy survey, which may further confirm its de facto definition of literacy. On the other hand, instead of analyzing the functional skills and task comprising literacy activities, as the national of adult literacy survey did, the national Institute of literacy (NIFL) launched a model called equipped for the future: a customer driven vision for adult literacy and lifelong learning(EFF) Stein 1995, that relied on participants perceptions of the skills needed to be a literate person. The model is based upon the responses of 1500 adult learners who responded in writing to the national education goals panel directive for adult literacy by stating what it meant to them. From the ethnographic analysis of these essays, for purposes of literacy in short options war identify, including use of literacy to gain information (access), to express oneself (voice), to take independent action, and to enable one to enter further education, training, and so on (bridge to the future). The analysis also identified three major roles for adults, as workers, family member, and citizen. EFF has forced on identifying the competencies for success in each world through role maps. Generative skills that cut across these roles -- communication, interpersonal, decision-making, and lifelong skills -- have also been identified in the process of development. This model is claimed to provide aid programmatic structure for comprehensive programs that no longer embrace a reproductive of the K-12 model of adult education with grade levels being the reporting framework for achievement. Attempts are being made through grants competitions from NIFL to involve the diversity of adult learners and providers in the process of consensus building. Assessment of literacy in this model is not definitive at this time although some type of competency assessment seems likely. Perhaps EFF, with its three identified rules for adults, will fare well in the environment of the new legislation that emphasizes literacy for work, family, and citizenship. The crucial issue is how progress and competency in each of these roles will be measured. Will the standards of commercial testing be applied, as suggested in the legislation, or will other means of demonstrating learning? Currently, no single assessment for measure seem to ride adequate information for all stakeholders (Askov, Van Horn, and Carman, 1997).
Program Evaluation
One of the major difficulties in adult literacy program is demonstrating student progress. What is the best measure of progress and impact? The adult education and family literacy act 1998 in the United States include the following as indicators of performance: (1) demonstrated improvements in literacy skills in reading, writing, and speaking the English language, numeracy, problem-solving, English language acquisition, and other literacy skills; (2) placement in, retention in, or completion of postsecondary education, training, unsubsidized employment or career advancement; (3) receipt of a secondary school diploma or its recognized equipment. The difficulties still remain in how to access these indicators, especially the first one. Politicians, assuming that adult education programs are supposed to prepare students for work, demand to know how many students have found productive employment. Students and instructors, on the other hand, want to know if students have met their own goals (regardless of whether these goals relate to work.) Students also want to see their own accomplishments through portfolios that demonstrate learning through students careful selected work samples from class (Hayes, 1997). However, program managers, who may be mandated by their funding agencies, often requires standardized testing as a seemingly objective measure of progress although the test scores usually do not indicate program impact and outcomes for students lives (Askov, 1993). In some states, such as California, were up adult education programs serve almost solely English as a second language (ESL) learner, there is a special need to address the issue that standardized tests are inappropriate for ESL learners (Guth & Wrigley, 1992). Unfortunately, it is difficult to find persuasive evidence of broad impact on adult learners and growth of skills and knowledge. According to both a recent program evaluation (Development Associates, 1994) and a study by the General accounting office 1995, evaluating the performance and quality of adult education program is highly problematic because of recurrent problems in collecting and analyzing information about program activities and because of high student dropout rates. The diversity of both Lerner and program goals is a major challenge to the program accountability. At the same time, several recent, large-scale, evaluation studies have failed to find significant overall impact of adult education or assessed literacy abilities, in either the educational component of welfare to work program in California (Martinson & Friedlander, 1994) or in adult literacy gains in the evaluation of the national Even Start Program that provides literacy instruction to children and their parents (St. Pierre, and Associates, 1993). Although further analysis of the national education of adult education programs (Fitzgerald and Young, 1997) identify some marginally significant gains in literacy test scores, the very high rate of attrition of participants and that longitudinal study, coupled with other data problems, makes be resulting slight increase tenuous at best (for example, they determined that persistence and adult education programs contributed significantly to reading achievement only in English as a second language ESL programs; negative persistence effects were are observed for adult basic education classrooms and labs.) Stitch and Armstrong's 1994 review of adult literacy learning gains also generally did not find convincing evidence of more than very modest effects of program participation of adult literacy development. Beder 1999 analyzed 23 of 89 identify impact studies, considering only the most valid and reliable studies and performing a case study of each. Then he performed a qualitative meta-analysis of these case studies, giving sure were studies more weight in the analysis of impact. The most common limitation of all studies was the large attrition of the learners between pre-and post testing. Another limitation was the variable length of time for instruction between pre-and post testing. The most serious problem, according to Beder, may have been the lack of testing validity since the test did not seem to measure what was being taught. These factors have made it increasingly difficult for the field to justify the importance of providing adult education services at public expense.
Student Recruitment and Retention
Students lack of motivation to attend and stay in adult education programs has been identified as a major research agenda item at the federally funded national center for the study of adult learning and literacy at Harvard University. The high attrition rate in programs can be attributed to various factors. In spite of all that has been written about making programs relevant to the needs of adult learners, many programs still offer canned instruction in the form of workbooks and/or computer programs that are not geared to individual needs. While adults may site childcare or transportation problems with a dropout -- and most do not hold multiple jobs with extensive demands upon their time -- many adults may leave because they do not receive what they came to the program to learn. Many adults also stop out, coming into and going from programs as their needs change. However, more subtle reasons may also exist. Cyphert 1998, and analyzing the discourse of blue-collar workers at a protection site,concluded that they are part of an oral culture that many have simply rejected the social, epistemological, and communicative presumptions of a literate rhetorical community. Furthermore, Cyphert nodes that individual pursuits of academic achievement may disrupt personal relationships and mutual dependencies that have become functional and comfortable over the years. Adults may find fulfillment of their social responsibilities to their families and workplace more satisfying than individual achievement and empowerment. Literacy educators, in turn, may become first-rate it went student dropout just when they began to achieve success. Teachers may not understand the cohesiveness and security of the oral culture that they are not likely to comprehend or value. Furthermore, literacy educators are probably not aware of the on equal power distribution in the teachers to the relationship. Sometimes in the political rhetoric the student is betrayed as a victim of poverty, racial termination, or inadequate schooling, with the adult educator (or volunteers tutor) seen as a savior (Quigley, 1997). Students may reject this tactic and on equal power relationship. They may, furthermore, not feel comfortable the ethnic, racial, economic, and cultural differences between the teacher or tutor (often a white female) and student (often a member of a minority group). School, even an adult education setting, may also bring back memories of frustration and failure associated with K-12 education. All these factors contribute to high student attrition. On the other hand, instructional programs that truly value students cultures, and create situations in which equality between teacher and student is achieved through exchanging talents and skills, are more successful (Fingeret, 1983).
Impact of Program Purposes on Recruitment and Retention
in the United States, title II also called the adult education and family literacy act -- of the workforce investment partnership act of 1998 defines the purpose of the act, and therefore the purpose of adult education programs that can be offered with public funding, to: (1) assist adults to become literate and obtained the knowledge and skills necessary for employment and self-sufficiency; (2) a Cisco adults who are parents to obtain the educational skills necessary to become full partners in the educational development of their children; and (3) assess adults in the completion of a secondary school education. Since the mid-1961 adult literacy programs were first legislated and funded, a tension has existed among the stakeholders about the purpose of adult education programs. The political rationale and the company rhetoric have been that the programs enables low-literate people become productive members of society. To justify funding, the numbers of people who do not hold a high school certificate is usually cited based on the assumption that a high school certificate is a basic requirement for employability and productivity in the workplace. More recently, the National Assessment of Adult Literacy Survey findings (Kirsch, Jungerblut, Jenkins, and Kolstad, 1993) have been sided with its alarming statistics with approximately half the adult population functions in at a plea for the modern high-performance workplace. Once funding has been secured, however, attention is usually turned to the concern for recruiting and retaining students. The program may be marketed to the consumer (that is, adult students) as meeting their needs rather than using the political rhetoric described above. However, many programs seem to have a revolving door in which students enter for a few sessions and then leave. Some for example, Askov 1991 have chewed it this problem with retention to inched option that has been designed on the K-12 model of six grade level expectations carried over to adult education without consideration of individual needs. In this paradigm, adult education is construed to be part of the formal education system instead of the non-formal education been you that emphasizes meeting the needs up individual participants. An alternative through the K-12 formal education model is the non-formal educational approach that makes education reveling to the immediate needs of the adult students. The role of the teacher is the model is to find out what adult need and deliver that in customized instruction. The assumption is that teachers are well-trained and capable of doing this. However, Wagner and Venezky 1999 point out that ... there exist remarkably few practical diagnostics instruments for use in adult literacy program, leaving instructors without sufficient information for tailoring instruction. Furthermore, the 1998 US law states that one condition of the program funding is whether the activities provide learning in real-life contexts to ensure that an individual has the skills needed to compete in the workplace and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. Despite the reference to real-life contexts and the skills required for citizenship, the spirit of the law seems to be on changing individuals to fit the needs of society, especially the need of the economic system for reproductive workers. Rapid technological advances and global competition have only served to increase the national obsession with productivity. The assumption is that what is good for business and industry is good for society and for individuals. This issue can be examined within the broad framework of the sociology of knowledge. Rubensen 1989 discussed to approaches relevant to adult education: the conflict paradigm and the consensus paradigm. The conflict paradigm, Jarvis 1985 calls the sociology of social action, aims to redress social inequalities and make society more egalitarian. Historically, before federal funding became so Dominick, adult literacy programs were developed mostly as social action programs with the goal of improving the lives of individuals through increased literacy skills and resulting empowerment. Even today, the adult education literature is replete with stories illustrating the quest for self-actualization of students (Demetrion, 1998), as a core value of adult literacy programs. Alternatively, the consensus paradigm favors an education system that differentiates the preparation of leaders from that of workers, which it argues supports a stable and prosperous economic and social status quo. Such are seen as agencies of socialization whose role is the allocation of manpower to of appropriate positions (Rubensen 1989). Publicly funded adult literacy programs that fall the letter and spirit of the law tend to operate within the consensus paradigm, especially in the context of the welfare reform act 1996. Funds are drying up in the United States for general community education and literacy programs as well as for popular education (Freire, 1973) or liberatory literacy (Quigley, 1997) and are flowing instead into the arena of work force preparation by delivering welfare to work programs. As this happened, the voluntary nature of adult literacy program changes as participants must attend the job training and literacy program in order to maintain welfare benefits. The function of adult education in this paradigm is to provide only the knowledge and skills required for employability -- to perform one's role for the good of society according to Rubenson 1989. Job placement is carried out as rapidly as possible -- regardless of whether or not the individual has sufficient literacy skills to maintain an advance in the job -- for the vast majority of literacy students this means for minimum wage, entry-level jobs. The sole value of a high school certificate now seems to be as the minimum credential required to make the person employable. The current system of literacy ensure option the United States is based on a deficit model. Rather than viewing adult learners as competent in other aspects of their lives, as urged by Fingeret 1983, they are usually viewed by policymakers as deficient. Adult literacy programs are being directed by federal funding to try to fix those who are perceived to be a drag on society those who'll par unemployable, under employed, or incarcerated -- supposedly due to their low basic skills. It is not surprising that the adult learners themselves are not eager to enter programs that perceive them in this way (Beder and Valentine, 1990).
Constructivist and Social and Cultural Views of Learning
The evolution of models of literacy training has been paralleled by an evolution in learning theories. Bredo 1997 discusses evolution, identifying two major schools of thought that have dominated learning theory in this country for most of the century: behaviorism and cognitivism. These two periods aligned with the double thrust of the consensus paradigm mentioned earlier, towards an education for workers (behaviorist) and one for leaders (cognitive), the former being taught to behave without thinking, the latter to think without any resulting Praxis or action. Learning theory has also historically had a strong individualistic bias, being under the purview of the discipline of psychology. A third approach has emerged more recently, combining behavioral and comets of learning theories with theories from sociology and anthropology and cultural studies. The synthesis yields a view of that learning is socially constructed as situated in specific context. One of the tenets of what has become known as situated learning theory is transactionalism or transactional contextualism, a view of that learning occurs in collaboration with others in the particular social world in which they find themselves (Bruner, 1990). Bounous 1996 has shown that non-formal education programs in which both teachers and students learn cooperatively can be built on the assumption that knowledge is socially constructed. Literacy contents of skills cannot be taught in isolation from the learners knowledge and experiences and from applications and action. Learners construct new knowledge and skills through interacting with others and the environment and by reflecting upon these experiences. Learners that closely resembled the real world of the participants occur as a social process involving others. Learners, with teachers, can co-create the curriculum and construct their own knowledge. In this model thinking and learning are fundamentally dependent for their proper functioning on the immediate situation of action (Bounous 1996). Also called the practice engagement theory (Reder, 1994), participants learn through social situations in which literacy is encountered and practice. They learn literacy practices through real-world knowledge and experiences, or simulations thereof, in which the skills must be applied, including interactions with others. From these activities learners construct meaning socially, not as isolated individuals, as a value laden process (Street, 1995). Teachers encouraged learners to become active readers by identifying and using their own background knowledge and experience and by negotiating and creating meaning before, during, and after reading. Constructivist learning, including the concept of situated learning, thus has great relevance to adult literacy programs, and the author's view. Teachers, with learners, can design instruction to meet the learners needs, interests, background knowledge, and skills. In fact, literacy activities become meaningful to the extent that they are needed in interactions with others and with the content to be learned. Common knowledge and experience of the participants are the basis for the literacy curriculum. In a family literacy classroom, for example, the common content could be the family concerns related to parenting decisions; in a workplace literacy setting it could be around be issues applicable in the workplace or needed for the job. Teachers can also encourage critical reflection (Shor, 1987) through questioning and discussion, a process that can lead to transfer from the classrooms with the learners daily lives. Teachers efforts, furthermore, can encourage transform of learning by explicitly teaching for transfer and offering practice in simulated or real world situation with others. For example, Taylor's 1998 comprehensive manual on the transfer of learning and workplace education programs in Canada describe strategies and provides case studies of transfer of learning. In other concept is also relevant to adult learning -- that of metacognition, learning how to learn or thinking about thinking (Baker and Brown, 1984). Metacognitive process provides the learning strategies that provide guidance when an immediate solution is not apparent. It includes both the knowledge about and the control of thinking behaviors and processes. For example, experience readers know and use strategies, such as using text structure, to better understand and remember information and complex reading materials (Paris, Wasik, and Turner, 1991). Metacognition also enables learners to monitor their own comprehension and self correct as necessary.
Recruitment and Retention from a Constructivist Perspective
One could expect a situated literacy learning model to have a positive impact on the recruitment and retention of students. As students become codesigner of instruction with the teacher, they become more engaged in the learning. The instructional implication for teachers is that they are no longer the authority figure but the facilitator and codesigner of learning experiences. The difficulty lies in assessment of it is be carried out by standardized tests that do not measure this type of learning. On the other hand, qualitative measures, such as student before meals, interviews, and observations, are appropriate for assessment and program evaluation in this learning environment. The challenge, then, is to implement the situated and constructivist instructional approach that foster maximum learning within the political agenda associated with the workforce investment partnership act of 19 that will determine how funding will be allocated to programs. What will be the instructor's reactions to the demands for greater accountability? Will they allocate the time required for the constructivist learning model, or will the temptation be to teach to the test in an attempt to produce gains that will assure the continued flow of funding? If they do the latter, will retention continue to be problematic? Will students really learn the content in such a way that they can use it in the everyday lives? Furthermore, the constructivist learning model may also conflict or complement, depending on implementations, with the national movement to towards skill standards for the workplace (National Skill Standard Act of 1994). If injection is designed around skill standards that relate to the learners knowledge and experiences, and if learners are encouraged work together in active learning and critical reflection to achieve the skill standard requirements, been learning can become relevant through the definitions provided in skill standards (Askov, 1996). On the other hand, if the skill standards are perceived as rigid standards of attainment that are taught with canned materials that do not engage the learners, then the constructivist learning environment will thrive, and learners may dropout programs.
Other Factors Affecting Recruitment and Retention
Technology is becoming increasingly important for the use with adult students as well as with instructors. The use of technology promises to enhance recruitment efforts and encourage retention in adult literacy program since learners often perceived the use of computers to be the modern way to learn. The fact that technology is driving the mole toward economic globalization and other societal changes (Bollier, 1998) makes the use of computers and other technologies even more important in adult literacy programs. Not only does it have enormous implications for literacy instruction but also for assessment (Wagner and Venezky, 1999). One result of the ervasiveness of technological innovations in society is the increasing availability of computers in the classroom. In fact, adult learners as well as their employers often view computer literacy as one of the basic skills needed to function in society. Technology use, however, does not guarantee effectiveness or student motivation. It constructivist learning model, however, can make technology very effective. Technology should be used in problem posing through simulation and microworlds that challenge adults with real-world problems that demand their application of basic skills (Askov, Bixler, 1998). Situational television programs, such as Crossroad Caf and TV 411, likewise provide real world context for learning literacy skills. Computer word-processing programs can also be effective as students improve their writing and reading skills to communications with others. A more sophisticated application of this same process is through the mail and interactive use of the Internet. In spite of extensive efforts to train staff, professional development remains a difficult in applying technology to instruction, however. Inch doctors are sometimes hesitant to relinquish control of instruction and let learners create their own learning environment (Askov and Bixler, 1998). Furthermore, the software is sometimes difficult to locate. Family literacy may also provide motivation for adult students to participate in adult literacy program. Now made officially part of the adult education act, and the retitling of the act as the Adult Education and Family Literacy Act 1988, family literacy is considered integral to adult education. The goal of the program is to improve parents literacy so they can help improve their children's literacy. The underlining assumption is that the intergenerational transfer of cognitive abilities in strong and that by improving parents literacy the children also benefits educationally (Stitch, McDonald, and Beeler, 1992). While several models for family literacy programs exist, many programs follow the model established by the national Center for family literacy. That model offers separate instructional program for adults and children, as well as time for parents and children to interact together -- time in which parents implement what they have been learning about parenting. Some researchers expressed concern that the program can lead to the imposition of middle-class values those of the teachers on to participants (Auerbach, 1989). Care should be taken that literacy activities that the parents are to implement with their children are consistent with, and enhance, the culture of the participants. Finally, recruitment and retention issues cannot be successfully address without that are trained inch doctors. Professional development is also being re-conceptualized in a constructivist view of learning (Floden, Goertz, and ODay, 1995). In this model, not only are students considered to be active learners, but so are their teachers who are also active adult learners, not passive recipients of knowledge that is doled out by an expert. As active learners they must make the new learning their own in order to incorporate that knowledge into practice. Bingman and Bells resource book for participatory staff development 1995, for example, follows this view. Furthermore, educators are not considered to be isolated individuals but as part of various networks that they can move in an alcove, depending on their changing levels of knowledge, interest, and needs. Building the capacity of these networks becomes important as they support the programs and individuals who work in various roles in the program. Instructors are also benefiting from participation in e-mail listservers on a variety of topics such as family literacy, workplace literacy, literacy and health, ES adult literacy, and adult literacy policy, all of which are supported by NIFL. With the field is becoming more professionalized through these efforts, the new legislation's emphasis on program quality will mandate greater accountability and professionalization then has been typical in the past. Service providers will either have to train their staff to meet these expectations or loose funding sources that were previously held.

Vision for the Future
The voices of all stakeholders and adult literacy programs need to be heard. Presently, the least heard a voice is that of the direct consumer, the adult learner, although some recent efforts are underway with focus groups of adult learners. If programs do not serve the needs, retention could continue to be a major problem. The new reader groups, Fortune, have been developing concurrently with the customer driven model for literacy and structure (EFF) promoted by the NIFL. Program alumni have been active in testifying before Congress as well as locally before funding agencies. They have assisted in recruitment efforts and attempted to make programs more responsive to adult learners. The small grass-roots movements have been supported largely by two national volunteer literacy organizations (Laubach Literacy Action and Literacy Volunteers of America) as well as the NIFL. While a doubt education should be viewed as a right, not as a stigmatized second chance program for those who have filled or dropped out from our school system, at the present time lifelong learning is only being given the service. Even those with high school certificates and college degrees and need additional education in the pursuit of lifelong learning in response to change society workplace (McCain and Pantazis, 1997). Some adults may not be able to assess their future education without basic skills instruction. Policymakers should broaden the concept of adult literacy programs to serve adults in all their basic educational needs infrastructure this learning environments. Many questions still need to be answered by research. Most of the funding for research has been centralized and the federal government of the United States and Canada (for example, in the US, most of the current research funding resides with NCSALL). View in symptoms for research in this feel are present to involved universities and researchers that are not part of the centralized federal funding. While a national agenda for research and development in the US has been derived from researchers and practitioners involvement (national clearinghouse for ESL literacy education, 1998; national Institute for literacy, 1998), many researchable questions remain and little support exists for answering them. Finally adult education program should not have to justify their existence solely in terms of preparing people for the workplace. Literacy program should be responsible for demonstrating gains in learning, but not in showing workplace employment impact. Literacy skills for community involvement as well as individual and family development should be considered just as important as insurance and progression in the workplace. Practitioners and researchers, as well as learners, who share similar views, must become politically active to make their voices heard. However, the workforce investment partnership act of 1998 has set the stage for the next decade and the US. It is now up to researchers to study the impact of legislation in an attempt to influence policy, and it is up to educators to provide as high a quality of basic education services as possible for adult learners in need within that framework.

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The effectiveness of using technology in the reading curriculum for low level students with special needs




Improving Reading Skills of Low-Level Special Needs Students through the use of Technology






















Irwin N Kellen


Concept Paper For: ARC: 8966 CRN: 58770




























July 30, 2007








--> Introduction[Author:T]


Technology and literacy have a very strong link and scholars have been keenly interested in discovering various aspects of their relationship. Fisher and Molebash (2003) in their study wrote that it was the Digital Divide, amongst many other things, that creates a division in learning. which has reminded --> us [Author:T] about They pointed out that the distance of accessibility that people in different parts of the world have when dealing with the latest advancement in information technologies. It is these reminders that --> make us face the fact that [Author:T] literacy, which is the main aim of a digital economy, is still not as accessible as it could or should be. This is one of the main reasons why organizations like the E-rate have devoted more and more time and effort into constructing a sound and efficient technical and informative setup of various schools in different parts of the world (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


Most researchers and educationalists make the mistake to treat of treating literacy and technical proficiency on different scales. However, the truth of the matter is that one cannot exist or work efficiently without the success of the other. A good example of this is visibly present in the past decade: the Technology Literacy Challenge Fund of 1997 aimed to advance technical learning and skills of every student while the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 aimed to adopt a more technologically-driven structure to boost the overall literacy amongst students. However, both failed to realize that neither can obtain their objectives without understanding that technical proficiency and literacy go hand in hand.


The main focus of this paper, hence, will be to define literacy, in the context of reading, and also discuss its connection with technology as well as present the advancements in the department of literacy/reading in special education. --> We will draw attention [Author:T] to the scope of special education in the fields of literacy/reading. A secondary aim of this paper will be to evaluate ways that will allow provide teachers with a wide array of choices in teaching low level special-needs students to read/understand what they have read in order to and make them part of the literate society.


--> Literature Review[Author:T]


Fisher and Molebash (2003) have defined literacy/reading, as a whole, as purely a means to extract meaning and understanding from a form of information or knowledge database. What technological improvements --> has[Author:T] done is given the teachers and students a wide spectrum of choices to extract this information. At first all educational exchanges were mainly aural but with time the advent of books, libraries, the media, journalism, television, the Internet, video games; etc making teachers' the task of the teachers has gotten easier. --> and the accessibility of the students has increased[Author:T] . However, when dealing with the students who have special needs, mere accessibility is not the answer and all efforts on technology integration have to include the easier understanding and interpretation of the text available (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


May (2003) found that even though technological improvements, even though, have made the job of the teacher easier; it has not actually decreased the workload. A teacher still has more than --> 2 [Author:T] dozen children in his/her class and there are various teaching/learning capabilities and methods that these teachers still have to understand. This difference in teaching/learning is even more enhanced amongst the special-needs students. A teacher cannot overlook a behavioral pattern or force a learning technique upon his/her students. This is one of the main ways that technology has helped the teachers. They can now use the everyday mechanisms to explain different educational theories with the help of other technological tools or interpretations. However, for technology to actually help in the long run, the teachers need to make sure that the students are giving their input and are involved in the utilization of the technology so as to ensure a higher success rate of education through technology (May, 2003).


--> Teale et al. [Author:T] (2002) concluded in their study that the use of technical advancements and proficiencies in the educational structure helped enhance the reading and writing skills of the special-needs students ( --> Teale et al. [Author:T] 2002). The main reason for this is that technology integration attracts the children motivates students and instigates engages them to learn more and more. However --> the[Author:T] teachers have to be careful that the technology being used does not hinder or slow down the process of learning for the special-needs students as their learning curves are very different form those of the normal students. Asselin (2001) in his study highlighted that The value of educational time spent on using technology to support students' literacy development rests on its ability to promote higher-level thinking, collaboration, constructivism, speed and information evaluation--i.e., those competencies required for the 21st century ( --> Asselin 2001[Author:T] ).


The 21st century looms with the need for great technological sense and knowledge for all its future businessmen and managers. This is one of the main reasons why the students of the 21st century need to get become accustomed to using these advancements and their implementations. and acquire knowledge of these advancements and their implementations. This is also what has led to the incorporation of technology in a classroom setting. All these technologies aim to increase the students' intensity of wisdom, cooperation and text assessment. A good and simple illustration of this could be is a book review, . This could which can be an individual task or even a group task and the child (or children) could be asked to use that uses software programs such as applications like Kidspiration and Timeliner. These applications could software programs help the students highlight visualize their thoughts and opinions as well as communicate them efficiently. Now literacy reading skills education is are very important not only for the reading skills of both normal students but also and special-needs students because they are not just exposed exposure to literacy is not only through books anymore. In fact, their the range of information is more vast and varied in accordance with the technical improvements; this is why the teaching of literacy/reading is far trickier then before. Teale et al. (2002) explained this: --> Technology profoundly affects the learning and teaching of literacy as well as the nature of literacy itself. It always has. The development of book technologies in the early 1500s set in motion the need for book literacies and many of the abilities we currently teach in our classrooms. Today, new literacies emerge as new technologies for information and communication demand new skills for their effective use. These include the literacies of word processors (e.g., using a spell checker or knowing how to format a paper), e-mail (e.g., managing a digital address book or effectively using an electronic mailing list) and the Web (e.g., using search ngines to locate information on the Internet or knowing effective strategies to critically evaluate Web site information). As a community of literacy educators, we are responding to the emergence of these new literacies in many ways [Author:T] (Teale et al. 2002).


--> [Author:T] Technology profoundly affects the learning and teaching of literacy as well as the nature of literacy itself. It always has. The development of book technologies in the early 1500s set in motion the need for book literacies and many of the abilities we currently teach in our classrooms. Today, new literacies emerge as new technologies for information and communication demand new skills for their effective use. These include the literacies of word processors (e.g., using a spell checker or knowing how to format a paper), e-mail (e.g., managing a digital address book or effectively using an electronic mailing list) and the Web (e.g., using search engines to locate information on the Internet or knowing effective strategies to critically evaluate Web site information). As a community of literacy educators, we are responding to the emergence of these new literacies in many ways. --> (Teale et al. 2002).[Author:T]




To improve the reading skills of special-needs students, the teachers are aiming to teachers use technology to improve student skills in the following spheres to make them: Making them (a) hear word tones, of the words, Making them (b) decipher and interpret words their use and interpretation, Making them (c) understand their overall expressions, Making them (d) understand the word span, of words, and (e) Making them become knowledgeable and confident with their reading style.


--> Making them hear tones of the words,


Making them decipher their use and interpretation,


Making them understand their overall expressions,


Making them understand the span of words,


Making them knowledgeable and confident with their reading style. [Author:T]


Numerous agencies are also involved to help the teachers and the special-needs students on the department of with reading/literacy. One of the many organizations involved is the Software & and Information Industry Association. Grogan (2002) analyze --> s[Author:T] one of the latest studies conducted by The Software & Information Industry Association and confirms that the use of technology helps develop the reading and speaking skills of the special-needs students through by boosting their spelling sense, plus span of words, expression and overall understanding of the text. He also proposed that to cater to the different learning curves of the special-needs students, teachers could employ a multimedia literacy program that incorporates text, acoustics, images and manipulatives (Grogan 2002).


May (2003) --> notes [Author:T] that one of the most successful ways with which that reading amongst the special-needs students has been enhanced by using technology has been in the is through group book reviews. The class is first given a list of books to choose form and then the students are divided in different groups based on their choice of book. There are prearranged meetings, and the pages that need to be read in each group are decided before students meet in groups. meetings are also decided from before. After this is done all special needs students are to During group meetings students engage in certain leaning task that involve the interpretation of the story, the characters and their choices, the plots, the twists, the climax, the main incidents and their denotations. etc. The whole idea is to make the children focus on what the story is about and how it has evolved through events and different interpretations (May, 2003).


May (2003) found that one of the most commonly used applications in this group book review task is the AlphaSmart mainly because of its simplicity and popularity among the special-needs students. The task would mainly involve the interpretation and rewriting of the story so that the teacher is aware of how well the student understands the plot and how much work he/she does. This also helps the teachers analyze the influence that the group opinions might have on the individuals within the group.


May (2003) notes that amongst other applications that are fast becoming part of the curriculum for improving the reading and understanding of the special-needs students are Kidspiration and Timeliner. The Kidspiration software program application helps the students recall the main events and characters of the story and their influence on the overall plot while the Timeliner application software program helps the students to analyze the timeline in which the major incidents in the storyline took place and their aftermath on the following timelines (May, 2003).


May (2003) writes that one other another technique that is now being used within a classroom of with special-needs students is the teacher reading the story out aloud . the whole story. After the story is completed the teacher asks the and then having the students to roam around their environment and take pictures that they feel relate to the story. that had been read out loud. They then come back and Then students use the AlphaSmart software application to paste their pictures and explain in a paragraph why, how, and where in the plot they feel that the pictures relates to the story. This tests three things: one, (a) the student concentration of the students, two their (b) student level of understanding of the general plot, and three, their (c) student imagination. This is an important implementation because it opens the students' horizons and allows them to see the general links and relations that their own lives might have with the stories that they read. The implementation of taking the pictures is one way that this has been successfully achieved. This use of a camera is a very flexible application and is being used in different ways for different special-needs students (May, 2003).


May (2003) found that cameras are being used to also expand the span of words or vocabulary amongst the special-needs students. The teacher hands out a set of words to the students and explains their use and different interpretations and then asks them to head out and take photographs in accordance to what they have understood. Any good reader will relay that the best part about reading is the expressions and vocabulary. Vocabulary is mainly an understanding of the use and interpretation of the words being used, and this process has helped the special-needs students in their reading skills when wherever it has been included in the curriculum (May, 2003).


There have been criticisms made on the use of technology and how it changes or lessens the expectations from for the students on a large scale. May (2003) argues that the truth of the matter is that with the increase in distractions that are present nowadays, the students need to be constantly engaged within a classroom setting and the use of technology does that extremely efficiently.


The misconception that exists amongst many still is that technology is the answer to all teaching hazards when dealing with the special-needs students; however, May (2003) notes that it is the proper incorporation of the technology available that makes the teacher's job easier. The use of technology is a fairly new concept and has been regularly used in the past decade or so, however, the results in the reading and comprehension skills of the special-needs students are undeniably better.


May (2003) notes that teachers have to analyze the technology that will be most useful for the student in accordance to, both, its implementation and the students' capabilities. If the incorrect technological tool is used it will hamper learning and decrease the level of confidence of the student. Also the teachers cannot expect the students to understand the use of the technological tool without initial instruction and explanation of its use.


--> Advancing Technologies [Author:T]


The three most successful applicationsthat have enhanced the literacy education over the years for the special-needs students are: --> (1) [Author:T] (a) voice detection software,


(2) (b) tele-cooperation operations of the Internet, and (3) (c) Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) and new portable processors or devices.


Fisher and Molebash (2003) in their study traced the track of technological advancements and point out that at the advent of the 21st century, all of the above applications were still being tested hypothetically on the drawing board. The speed at which these have been practically implemented and yielded successful result is simply astonishing. They said that Fisher and Molebash found that all technological advancements have followed the pattern that Gordon Moore had pointed out more then 4 decades ago. He had Moore said that in theory all microchips had the capacity to improve and enhance within a period of 18 months to --> two[Author:T] years. This statement, called the Moore's law, has held true since that day and stands true for the digitally driven society today. The alteration or adjustment in the to Moore's Law is that Moore had restricted the phenomenon of speedy advancements to the speed of microchips while in today's society this theory holds true to include everything from the speed, to power, to memory, and to the price (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


This rapid increase in the advancements of technology is one of the main reasons for the incorporation of tools like computers and cameras and others in the school setting because without them the children students will not only be bored but also the educational setup would be backward and not up to the par of what is required in the developing societies. Computers, Nintendo, cell phones, e-mail and the World Wide Web have become such an integral part of the daily life that it is hard to imagine a time when they did not exist. The use of technology within a classroom setting of special-needs students makes these students more confident and comfortable in thinking that they can operate all these things and tools that the normal students operate. can, not to mention the improvement These technology tools also improve in their special needs students' reading and comprehension skills. that are also a direct result of the use of technology. This ubiquity of technology, like PDA, TVs, cell phones, video games, Walkmans, computers, and modern publishing resources, is why all types of students feel more accustomed and engaged in a classroom where technology is incorporated in the academic curriculum.


Prensky (2000), in answer to the criticism of the application of technology in educational structures, explains that the thought processes and attitudes have shifted dramatically between the past three generations and in correspondence to these changes in attitudes the teaching methods need to be altered as well. Fisher and Molebash (2003) agree that it seems extremely logical to analyze the patterns and learning curves of the current generation before completely discarding the use of technology in educational standards mainly because its seems too easy for the students (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


One of the most useful applications to enhance the reading skills of the special-needs students, thus far, has been the tele-collaborative venture that uses the Internet as its main source of communication. The significant fact of the Tele-collaborative ventures is that it mainly incorporates some of the most commonly used mechanisms of telecommunications like the tools e-mail, debate mediums, synchronous chats, and videoconferencing. All of these tools and mechanisms are then use to communicate within and amongst classroom, schools, and universities as well as across borders to address the commonalities and difficulties faced by the special-needs students. Once these commonalities are identified then numerous organizations join hands to work on problem-solving techniques and structures. Judi Harris (1998), in her study on technology integration in the reading curriculum for low level students with special needs has divided the tele-collaborative based applications and implementations into three groups: (a) interpersonal exchange, (b) information collection and analysis, and (c) problem solving. -->


Interpersonal Exchange,


Information Collection and Analysis, and


Problem Solving. [Author:T]


She further divides these three categories into 18 different activities. The interpersonal exchange includes:


--> Tele-mentoring


Key-pals or pen-pals through the use of Internet


Electronic facades


Question-and-answer exchanges


International classrooms


Imitations or masquerades [Author:T]


The Information Collection and Analysis section includes:


--> Electronic printing


Date or knowledge-based communication


Mutual data investigations


Tele-outings or tele-fieldtrips


Knowledge catalog construction [Author:T]


The Problem Solving section includes:


--> Corresponding problem solving


Knowledge explorations


Contemporary response exchanges


Public interaction ventures


Tele-based problem solving


Replications


Chronological problem solving [Author:T]


Hawkes & and Good (2000), in their study highlight that one of the main reason for the improvements in the learning capabilities of K-12 special-needs students has been through is the result of the execution of the tele-collaborative ventures. They also go on to say said that the teachers' work is made a lot easier and less hectic because they have more options, outlooks, practices and encounters that they can learn from and employ when dealing with the different learning curves of the special-needs students. (Hawkes & Good, 2000). The tele-collaborative ventures have also shown flexibility and adaptability in genres beyond the reading and comprehension skills of special-needs students. One good example of the flexibility of tele-collaborative ventures is given in the study conducted by Dawson, Mason and Molebash (2000). In this study they analyzed the behavioral patterns and results achieved by teachers who were topographically apart but were tele-collaborating on issues that sparked mutual interest like example-based educational methods, internet forums, cross-border university alliance, and similarly patterned or dissimilarly patterned method of teaching. The researchers concluded that the level of tele-collaborative communication and ventures helped in the growth of teaching techniques and information, enhanced the similarities and difficulties that are faced by teachers of special-needs students irrespective of their geographical location, increased the span of learning techniques, encouraged feedbacks as well as helped understand the practical executions of numerous teaching theories.


Enough practical applications and evaluations have shown that the proper and informed execution of the tele-collaborative ventures can immensely benefit the K-12 special-needs students and encourage them to look for multiple interpretations, improve their reading skills and increase their span of knowledge as well as vocabulary (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


--> The Personal Digital Assistants [Author:T]


The rise in the use and success of the Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) is one of the main reasons why it is now being used on such a large scale in the educational institutions as well. Even though the PDA was initially used as a storage device for the names, dates, reminders and/or addresses, it has now become versatile enough to provide the teachers with a sort of an electronic calculator and mobile computer that they can use to access the Internet, perform online tests and assessments, record results, and scores, and allow teachers to have the option of data keeping tools and keep grade books. The popularity of the PDA has forced the Education Committees in Florida to create an efficient software based on the PDA format that will help the special education teachers to document student activities and follow the aims and objectives of students' Individualized Education Plan (IEP) aims and objectives (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


Fisher and Molebash (2003) pointed out that the PDA can also allow the teachers to manage or oversee a group of students and gather/record the facts in their ongoing discussions. This recording though was once believed to be painstaking, but with the use of PDA teachers can now collect this information is now done without much effort by using PDAs and teachers can then use the information gathered to analyze students' the comprehension abilities of the students and hence modify their teaching methods accordingly (Fisher and Molebash, 2003). They also asserted that the PDA beyond helping the with the compilation and evaluation of information could also can be used for marking as well i.e. the PDA can measuring and ranking the overall performance of the students in the class by analyzing whatever information has been entered by the teacher (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


One of the most important features of the PDA is the accessibility to the --> i[Author:T] nternet and the online books. It is true that the generation gap makes some teachers want to carry on with the real books and the while students prefer the --> PDF[Author:T] format. The advantage of having a book stored in the PDA is that it can show the meaning, pronunciation and use of a word that the student did not recognize (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


The downside with the use of PDA though, as Fisher and Molebash (2003) highlight, is that the overall monitoring by the teachers would have to increase. This simply means that the easy access to the email or internet for the students might be distracting and destructive if used inappropriately and the notes passing between students will become easier and difficult to control. Hence the monitoring and repercussions would have to be made stricter (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


--> Voice Recognition Technology[Author:T]


Fisher and Molebash (2003) pointed out that the emphasis on learning how to type has grown in importance over the years and now students, along with learning how to read and write, are expected to learn how to type as well. Most of the time, teachers use the computer lab time to allow the students to type and increase their typing speed with time. However, when dealing with special-needs students, this is not always easy. The current format of the keyboard is based on the Sholes' QWERTY which was designed by Christopher Latham Sholes in the 1870s. Over the years, people have been reluctant to change the format as it was seen as too much of a hassle to teach the typists to type in an updated and more efficient keyboard (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


--> Wetzel (1991) [Author:T] in his study had made predictions on some of the problems that the special education teachers might face with the passage of time in the advent of a technologically driven society. --> Dorsey (1994) [Author:T] explained how the implementation of the voice recognition technology was extremely helpful for the special-needs students to express their thought and philosophies particularly the one who suffered from dyslexic. Mitchell and Scigliano (2000) also experimented the use of Voice Recognition Technology (VRT) for the special-needs students although the students they focused on were those who had problems with their sight. --> Brown (1992) in his study also evaluated the usefulness of the VRT and the sample of special-needs students he utilized were the one who were mentally retarded and/or suffered from cruel physical perils. [Author:T] Myers (2000) in his study analyzed the use of VRT in the enhancing of language abilities for immigrant or non-native citizens (Myers, 2000). Fogg and Wightman (2000), in their study also pointed out that the use of VRT helped shorten the time span for conducting interviews or discussions. All these studies prove one thing: that VRT is an essential part of the society we live in and it is particularly important for the special-needs students (Fisher and & Molebash, 2003).


The most likely progress that is expected of the VRT module is that it will soon recognize our speech and convert it to text simultaneously. Fisher and Molebash (2003) recognized that the use of VRT will change the way the future generations will read and write, but they also highlighted that the challenge for most educators will be to incorporate the language capabilities such as like reading and writing in a way that is easy to adjust to and comprehend (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


--> Conclusion[Author:T]


It is extremely hard to imagine what the future holds for us in terms of the technological advancements. , but keeping the Moore's Law and similar theories in mind we can use the assumptions to demonstrated the need to develop the instructional methods and techniques that incorporate technology. Fisher and Molebash (2003) explained that by keeping the Moore's law in mind, it is not absurd to assume that by the end of the first two decades of the 21st century the Intel projects will be able to develop and use microchips that will encompass nearly 1 billion transistors, which if continued, will make the human brain and intellect obsolete in comparison to the power and ability of the computer chips (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


Even though the assumptions we make about the future can be wrong and inaccurate, the fact of the matter remains that they can still be of great use to the present. If the current special-needs educators are given targets and aims to achieve in accordance to with the technology being used, they will not only develop a more sound and efficient instructional structure but they will also be able to analyze and evaluate what needs to be done to keep up to pace with the computational advancements of the future. Fisher and Molebash (2003) suggested that to make literacy the only ultimate goal the special-needs instructors will need to construct a method have to incorporate technology that will make it simpler for the special-needs students to access, comprehend and transfer information and opinions so that they can participate in this world where information is everywhere (Fisher and Molebash, 2003).


--> References[Author:T]


Your references are not in the proper format. Below is an example of how they should appear in the reference list. Change to this format:




Angelides, P. (2004). Restructuring staff meetings. Journal of Staff Development, 24, 58. Retrieved January 22, 2006, from Wilson Web Database.




Black, S. (2003). Try, try again. Surgery's bumpy learning curve applies to teaching. Journal of Staff Development, 24, 8-32. Retrieved December 12, 2005 from Wilson Web Database.






Asselin, M. (2001). Literacy and Technology. Teacher Librarian 28 (3): 49.


--> Brown, C. (1992). The sound-to-speech translations utilizing graphics mediation interface for students with severe handicaps. [ERIC Document Number ED403727][Author:T]


Dawson, K. M., Mason, C. L., & Molebash, P. (2000). Results of a telecollaborative activity involving geographically disparate teachers. Educational Technology & Society, 3(3), 470-483.


--> Dorsey, R. C. (1994). Do what I say! Voice recognition makes major advances. Technos, 3(2), 15-17. E-Rate.[Author:T]


Fisher, D, Molebash, P. (2003). Teaching and Learning Literacy with Technology. Reading Improvement. 40: 2.


Fogg, T., & Wightman, C.W. (2000). Improving transcription of qualitative research interviews with speech recognition technology. [ERIC Document Number ED441854]


Grogan, D. (2002). Phonemic Awareness: Technology Lends a Hand. Principal 81 (4): 62-64.


Harris, J. (1998). Activity structures for curriculum-based telecollaboration. Learning and Leading With Technology, 26(1), 6-15.


Hawkes, M., & Good, K. (2000). Evaluating professional development outcomes of a telecollaborative technology curriculum. Rural Educator, 21(33), 5-11.


May, S.W. (2003). Integrating Technology into a Reading Progam. T H E Journal. 30: 8.


Mitchell, D. P., & Scigliano, J. A. (2000). Moving beyond the white cane: Building an online learning environment for the visually impaired professional. Internet and Higher Education, 3, 117-124.


Myers, M. J. (2000). Voice recognition software and a hand-held translation machine for second-language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13(1), 29-41.


Prensky, M. (2000). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.


Teale, W., L. Labbo, C. Kinzer and D. Leu Jr. (2002). Exploring Literacy on the Internet. The Reading Teacher 55 (7): 654.


--> Wetzel, K. (1991). Speaking to read and write: A report on the status of speech recognition. Computing Teacher, 19(1). 6-10.[Author:T]


















Special Education 1






No bold


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do not use et. al. here because it is the first time you are citing this research. See page 208 in the 5th ed. APA Manual


Since this is the same paragraph and no other research appears between this information, it is understood that this relates to Teale. Therefore, only the yr. is needed.


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Not cited properlysee page 118 APA Manual. Quotes40 or more words are indented from left margin and single spaced with the page number at the end. I have shown the correct format.


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Concept Paper Rubric




Student's Name: _________________ Committee Chair: __________________


Submission #: ________ Committee Member: __________________


Date: __________




Item

Comments




Overall


a) Approximate length is 12 pages, excluding title page and reference pages


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Title Page


a) Is descriptive of AD study


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Introduction


a) Explains the setting of the study


b) Contains organizational profile


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Statement of the Problem


a) Actual problem indicated


b) Documented evidence of problem provided


c) Impact of problem is clearly stated


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e) Problem statement is concise and focused


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Preliminary Literature Review


a) Provides contextual background


b) Reveals related issues


c) Reviews similar problems elsewhere


d) Provides significance to your approach to the study


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Purpose of the Proposed Project


a) Intent of proposed project clearly explicated







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Brief Description of Methodology and Research Design


a) Presents an overview of the methods to be utilized to address research questions


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Anticipated Outcomes


a) Description of expected study results


b) Detail of the importance of conducting the study as well as possible impact on practice and theory







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References


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There are faxes for this order.

Topic:
Preamble

Length: 2,100 words (equivalent) (1,050 for each scenario chosen ??"choose two scenarios from the five given)

Below (scroll down after the assessment task details) you will find information about three early years classes (Prep ??" Year 3) in a typical primary school and five scenarios related to literacy program planning situations that teachers of these classes may encounter. The information about the classes is general and intended to create a general context for your thinking.

The scenarios provide some typical program planning situations in which teachers of Prep ??" Year 3 children may be involved. Imagine that you are a teacher in a similar context, participating in a similar collaborative planning situation where you contribute your ideas and understandings about planning and implementing the classroom literacies program.


The assessment task

Read the five scenarios. Select two of these and in relation to each one:
You will take the role of a classroom teacher and provide your responses to each of the selected scenarios by describeing and explaining the typical classroom decision-making about planning and implementation of the classroom program relevant to that scenario i.e. what the teacher might plan and how he/she might implement the plans. In the response to each scenario you should describe and explain: relevant teaching strategies, resources, classroom organization and use of syllabus/curriculum documents. You are not expected to write unit or lesson plans in this section. (For each response you will write approximately 650 words. Write this section in paragraphs, though you may make use of very limited point form.)


To illustrate your decision-making, include practical examples in an appendix. These may be: specific teaching strategies; descriptions and references for effective resources; specific, relevant teacher-designed materials; or an exemplary lesson plan or unit overview. One to three items would be sufficient. (Do not include extensive quantities of resources or downloaded lists of general materials. Careful selection will demonstrate your abilities much more effectively than large quantities of copied materials.)

Each response should focus on a different Year level. (For instance, dont focus on Prep for both scenarios). As a context for your response, you may select a particular class from those outlined in the typical classes below. However this is not required and you may write more generally.

In addition, provide a brief justification (or rationale) for each response (with a reference list) referring to the research/theory that would support your planning and action. (Write approximately 400 words. You should write this section in paragraphs, providing in-text references. Attach a reference list (not included in the word count) to each scenario.

Presentation: Present the parts of your response to each scenario in a sequential order. Use the headings: planning response, justification/ rationale, references, appendix. See above for the appropriate text structure for each part. The headings, reference list and appendices are not included in the word count.
No particular planning format is required for practical examples. You may make some use of point form, where appropriate, but avoid long lists of points.

Scenarios

Scenario 1: Learning literacy in the context of play

As preparation for a presentation to teaching colleagues on the next pupil-free planning day the Prep -Year 1 teachers are discussing the ways pretend play provides meaningful social contexts for literacy learning and opportunities to participate in meaningful oral language, reading, writing and multimodal literacy experiences. The teachers will explain and describe the literacy teaching/ learning strategies they use to support, extend and build on negotiated play to support childrens achievement of literacies curriculum/syllabus outcomes (e.g. in the EYCG Communication learning area; English Essential Learnings; Year1 Learning statements).

Scenario 2:

Literacy learning at the word level (phonemic awareness, phonics and spelling)

In consulting about the whole school literacy program, the school curriculum coordinator meets with the early years teachers (Prep to Year 3) to find out how the teaching of word level understandings and skills (phonemic awareness, phonics and spelling) occurs in Prep and Years 1-3. The teachers explain how they teach word level understandings in their daily programs and describe the types of teaching/learning experiences and resources that are used to support the childrens learning. The teachers provide their comments on the relative merits of commercial and teacher designed programs for childrens word level learning and suggest the types of materials that could be made by the teacher aides and parent volunteers to support childrens literacy learning at the word level.

Scenario 3: Use of literature in the classroom program

The impending national curriculum (in Australia) incorporates a focus on enhancing childrens understanding and appreciation of literature. The Prep ??" Year 3 teachers are planning to include literature-based strategies and resources for the teaching of literary understandings in their classroom programs. They identify strategies and resources that they could use to teach: different types (genres) of stories, features and structure of narrative text, comprehension and critical analysis of stories. In addition they consider how stories, rhymes, poems and songs can be used to enhance oral language development and phonemic awareness. They have invited to Teacher Librarian to join their discussion to share ideas about utilizing the school library resources and the use of literature to enhance teaching across the curriculum (other KLAs).


Scenario 4: Appropriate assessment and monitoring of literacy learning and development

The teachers of Prep ??" Year 3 classes monitor childrens ongoing literacy learning and development to ensure each child is making optimal progress and to identify and cater for children who may progress very quickly and those who may experience ongoing challenges in literacy learning. The teachers are aware of the importance of communication with parents about childrens literacy learning. They are planning a repertoire of assessment strategies that they will use to ensure that the childrens literacy learning is assessed in a manner appropriate for young children. They also discuss how they can document each childs literacy learning regularly and comprehensively so as to create an ongoing literacy learning record for each child that can be shared with his/her parents.

Scenario 5: The daily literacy session

The Year 2-3 teachers have been asked by the Principal to explain to parents how they implement the classroom literacies program so that the children will demonstrate optimal achievement of the Essential Learnings for English in Years 1-3 and optimal performance in national literacy assessment activities. The teachers are planning to explain how the children participate in a comprehensive literacies program that provides: (i) a daily literacy session comprising a balanced range of teaching /learning opportunities, using a variety of strategies including explicit teaching; and (ii) meaningful literacy activities integrated with other key learning areas. The teachers explain how, altogether the activities of the classroom literacies program enhance childrens learning and use of multiple literacies, while not neglecting conventional alphabetic reading and writing processes and understandings about texts at text, sentence and word levels.

Scroll down for background information to provide a typical context for the scenarios.

The school context: A typical outer suburban primary school where the children and their families participate in local community activities. Most childrens parents work locally. A few children from small rural areas notfar from the town also attend the school. There is some diversity of socioeconomic status and ethnic background within the school population, but this is not marked. There are two - three classes at each Year level including some multiage classes that are team taught by two teachers. It is Term 2 in the school year.
The school has a school literacies program to ensure continuity throughout the Year levels P ??" 7. The broad Year level programs are prepared collaboratively by the Year level teachers using the relevant curriculum guidelines (in Queensland these are the Essential Learnings and related materials and the Early Years Curriculum Guidelines) with considerable consultation between adjacent Year levels. The school has a well stocked and equipped library and the teacher librarian engages in cooperative planning with classroom teachers to support the classroom program. All children have a weekly class library session and borrow books to take home.
Monitoring childrens ongoing literacy learning and development is given high priority and teachers document progress in an individual portfolio of authentic assessment materials for each child.

Some of the Early Years classes in this school
Prep (Queensland; equivalent to Kindergarten in NSW)
Ms Z. teaches Prep.
Most of the children in the Prep class have some prior experience in group settings (child care, kindergarten, regular playgroup). The children have settled into the routines and play experiences of the program. Ms Z. takes every opportunity to extend their skills in the Language Learning and Communication learning area of the Early Years Curriculum Guidelines, by building on the language and literacy experiences related to childrens interests and their play. Current play interests include transportation vehicles and camping (several of the children went camping during the recent school holidays).

Most children interact socially with their peers, confidently using their oral language skills to participate in play with others and to share information in conversation with their teacher. However a few children rely on the encouragement and support of the teacher to do this. The children often discuss afternoon TV shows with each other, particularly animal documentaries and programs that have related merchandise such as Transformers. At morning session, Ms Z. is encouraging children to participate in group discussion on topics of interest. This is also when, with Ms As scaffolding, children plan their play, expressing their interests, intentions and thinking and the materials they will need. Ms Z. writes down the childrens play idea on a chart that all can see. She encourages careful listening to each other. When problems arise in play she prompts and guides children to negotiate and solve problems; and models appropriate language to use in these situations.

The Prep children love listening to stories and commenting on them, although a few find it challenging to sit and listen to a longer story. They also enjoy looking at picture books from the class book corner. Some children prefer catalogues, particularly those from local shops, about machinery. A few of the children can locate and read some common words in storybooks and on signs and labels in the room. Each of the children can recognize his/her own name and many are becoming familiar with the names of their peers. Many children write their names on paintings and several add written captions in their own emergent writing. Ms Z. models writing related to classroom activities many times during the day. The children are learning to take photos and these, along with their drawings, are used to illustrate the simple recounts of classroom activities that Ms Z. and the children create and display for parents to read with their children. The children often read these texts with their peers.

Year 1

Ms A. teaches Year 1.

Most of the children attended Prep at the school, but a few entered Year 1 after attending the local Kindergarten and child care centre.
The children in this class have settled into the school routine well and are enjoying the literacies program where most are beginning to read simple repetitive texts, focusing on the print. When they encounter challenging texts, most adopt emergent reading strategies such as storytelling from the pictures and memory of repetitive phrases and sentences. They are building up a sight vocabulary of the frequently used words in the texts they read. A small group of children are already confident early readers who are beginning to read simple texts with some fluency. A similar number are still very much in the emergent phase. These latter children are aware of most of the concepts about print. Each night, each child takes home a simple book to read to his/her parents. All the children enjoy listening to and discussing stories read by the teacher. They are becoming familiar with the features of traditional narratives by drawing story maps collaboratively as a class, with teacher guidance.
Most children are creating written messages associated with everyday activities such as diary writing and labeling drawings. These children are using phonetic spelling strategies as they try to represent the phonemes that they can hear in words. As their phonemic awareness skills and knowledge of sound symbol correspondences become more extensive, they include both consonant and vowel sounds in their spelling. A small number of children are still developing phonemic awareness skills and these children find phonics and spelling activities challenging. Recently the children have learned the features of recount and procedure text types by comparison of diary entries and recipes. The children are currently learning to take photos to illustrate their writing and the labeled wall displays of classroom activities that are created to share class activities with parents.
Almost all children participate in class discussions on familiar topics and enjoy learning new words associated with class projects and investigations. They explore and talk about information on web sites (related to these topics) selected by the teacher. In collaboration with the teacher, they also plan and help set up play contexts associated with these such as the current Vet clinic associated with a study of caring for animals in different contexts. They enjoy role taking within these play contexts.

Year 2-3
Ms P. and Mr Q. are team teaching a combined Year 2-3 class.

The assessment records of the children indicate that many of the children are confident early readers, while a substantial group are fluent readers who read an extensive range of texts (both literary and information texts). The children enjoy listening to chapter books read as serials by their teachers. As a result of activities involving critical analysis of texts, they are currently enjoying fractured fairy tales where the stereotypes of the traditional fairytale world are challenged.
Most children are early writers who are becoming familiar with the features of common text types. After the teacher explicitly teaches a new text-type, the children engage in the writing process to create texts in these types. Some children are transitional writers who write simple narratives, recounts, descriptions and procedures with relative control over the generic structures of these text-types. All children need ongoing guidance and support in using the writing process and extending their knowledge of language features at word, sentence and text levels. A small group of children are experiencing some challenges in mastering conventional reading and writing processes and are not yet confident in using these.
Most children are confident in participating in class oral language experiences and can join in discussions, make simple presentations about projects to the class in the morning session and can greet and thank visitors on behalf of the class. Guided by the teacher, they enjoy improvised drama activities related to classroom topics of interest, hinking carefully about the language associated with particular roles.
The children are familiar with, but need guidance in using communication technologies for accessing and using online resources to support their learning. They can contribute to and help create multimodal contributions to class projects such as PowerPoint presentations and simple newsletters which include photographs that are used to inform families about class activities.


There are faxes for this order.

You are to write a 1-page paper. Read the article below and summarize the article. Do Not Use Outside Sources.

Hal Beder article
Abstract: This paper addresses the question: What are the contextual factors that shape learners engagement in adult literacy education? Six adult literacy classes were studied at an urban adult learning center. Data sources included video, traditional ethnographic observation, stimulated recall interviews and open interviews. Findings focus on the ways that teachers roles shape engagement. This study addresses the question: What are the contextual factors that shape learners engagement in adult literacy education? Engagement is mental effort focused on instructional tasks, or in more simple terms, working hard at learning. When learners are engaged they are
focused on their work. Their eyes are moving, pages are turning and they are writing the answers to written exercises. When they are not engaged, they are talking about things irrelevant to the class, taking breaks, or simply day dreaming. Engagement is important to an understanding of adult learning because no one can learn unless they first engage. While there is a substantial literature on engagement in K-12 education, the present study is the first we were able to identify in adult education.

Literature
The literature on engagement can be classified into two traditions. In the first tradition, engagement is studied as a cognitive function closely associated with other cognitive constructs such as motivation and self-efficacy. Within this tradition, engagement is often termed cognitive engagement. In the second tradition, the relationship between engagement and the instructional context is stressed. Cognitive Engagement One of the first studies to focus on engagement as a cognitive function (Corno & Mandinach, 1983) forefronts self-regulation: an effort to deepen and manipulate the associative network in a particular areaand to monitor and improve that deepening process (p.
95). For self-regulated learners, engagement operates at the meta-cognitive level. As they engage, learners think about how they are learning and are therefore able to develop strategies that are optimally effective for them within a given learning context. Corno and Mandinach postulate three other types of cognitive engagement that fall short of self-regulation. Resource management is a form of engagement in which learners rely primarily, or exclusively, on
information from external resources to complete learning tasks. In recipience teachers supply learners with the information and strategies to complete learning tasks, thus removing any need on the part of the learner to make strategic learning decisions. In task-focus learners focus on a particular task, such as taking a test, without reaching beyond the parameters of the task to consider other strategic options. Although self-regulated learners may use resource management, recipience and task-focus at times, they are able to move productively between
them when appropriate.

Drawing in part on Corno and Mandinach, Meece, Blumenthal, and Hoyle (1988), examine the relationship between student goal orientations and engagement. Goal orientations are classified as task-mastery, ego/social and work avoidance. In task mastery, students seek to master and understand their work. In ego/social the students goal is to please the teacher and students with work avoidant goals attempt to do as little as possible. Meece et. al. found that
task mastery was more closely associate with active cognitive engagement than the other two types of goals. Like Corno and Mandinach, Pintrich (1990) was primarily concerned with self-regulation which he identified as having three components. The first is the students strategies for planning, monitoring and modifying cognition. The second is the students monitoring of the environment and the third is the use of learning strategies. Pintrich found positive relationships between motivation and self-regulation and that self- regulation had a positive affect on student
performance.

Engagement and Context
Because space limitations preclude an exhaustive treatment of the cognitive engagement literature, the above studies are but examples of the cognitive tradition. While studies within this tradition present intriguing possibilities for adult education (the concept of self regulation, for example, might be a productively applied to non-formal adult learning), nearly all the literature on cognitive engagement focuses on K-12 schooling. Because the context of adult literacy differs so substantially from K-12, we were reluctant to frame the present study on the cognitively-oriented literature. Rather, we decided upon a two-step strategy. The first step, represented by this study, employed a holistic qualitative approach in an effort to capture the relationships between engagement and the broad adult literacy context. Then, once those relationships had been established, the next step was to focus more narrowly on the cognitive aspects of engagement in a series of quantitative studies. The quantitative studies are in progress.
There are a number of studies that, like the study we present here, focus on the relationship of context to engagement. As with the cognitive tradition, most relate to public school schooling. Zimmerman (1994) for example notes that the instructional context must present options for students to choose how they will learn if they are to apply self-regulated learning strategies. Newmann (Newmann, 1981; Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992) focuses on the relationship between the schools organizational context and student alienation, and in turn, on the relationship of alienation to engagement. Anderson and Lee (1997) investigated the relationships between students motivation, engagement and the school as a social system, particularly in relationship to organizational culture, race and class. Skinner and Belmont (1993) focus on motivation, engagement and the relationship to teacher behavior.

Methods
The question that guided the research was, what are the factors that shape engagement in an adult education setting? The research was a qualitative study using grounded theory methodology. Over a three year period, it was conducted in six classes at an operational adult literacy learning center serving about 3,800 learners per year. Three classes were at the basic literacy level (approximate grade level 1-6) and three were secondary level courses. Data sources included videotaped observation, traditional ethnographic observation, stimulated recall interviews and open interviews. Videotaped observation was the primary data source. Video proved to be very valuable because it could be viewed over and over again to refine and verify analysis. However, early on we discovered that the camera angle was to narrow to encompass the entire classroom and thus off camera data were being lost. Hence we added traditional ethnographic observation to the protocol to ensure a more complete set of observational data. In stimulated recall interviews, one of the five-member research team viewed the video for episodes suggestive of emerging themes. Then the learner was interviewed by the researcher while the learner viewed the episode in
which he or she was the actor. In this way, what learners were thinking and feeling was added to the video record. As data collection and analysis proceeded, the five-member research team began to ask questions of the data that only learners could answer adequately. As a result, open ended, probing learner interviews were added. Teachers of the classes studied participated in data analysis and their observations were treated as data. In data analysis, a member of the team viewed a video and noted episodes that might suggest emerging themes or revisions of previously identified themes. Then the whole team viewed the selected video segments and commented on them. The results of the session were then written into a theoretical memo that was circulated to all team members who commented on
the analysis in writing, sometimes elborating, sometimes disagreeing and sometimes adding new insights. Having multiple data sources allowed for triangulation in analysis. Finally, based on the data and memos, cases were written for each class and a thematic analysis was performed. As a member check, the teachers of the classes we observed read the final report and commented. No substantial inaccuracies were noted.


Findings
We found that that there were three primary factors that shaped engagement in the classes we studied: the instructional system, behavioral norms and teachers roles. Because of space limitations, this paper will focus on two of the six classes and on one shaping factor, teachers roles. Meghans class. Prior to working in adult literacy, Meghan had been an elementary special education teacher. Because she came to the class with no experience in either adult education or the individualized teaching-learning system used by the by the previous teacher, she
could not rely on prior socialization for informing teaching role behavior in the adult context. Thus, in deciding how to teach she patterned her behavior primarily on her perception of how the previous teacher had taught. The instructional system in previous use was one we have termed individualized group instruction (IGI). In IGI, which was employed for most of the reading, writing and math instruction at the Center, learners skills levels were diagnosed trough testing. Learners were then assigned to a class were they were given paper and pencil materials by the
teacher that were geared to their skill levels. Learners then worked individually on the materials and were assisted by the teacher when necessary. Although diagnosis, prescription, assessment and assistance were part of the IGI rubric wherever it was used, there were also variations in the way teachers employed IGI. We have termed Meghans variation of IGI, correct and direct. Meghans teaching included three steps, correct, direct, praise. Meghan would first assign students individualized reading or math materials based on their diagnosed skill level. Then students would work individually on the materials and would signal Meghan or Connie, the aide, when they had completed an exercise. The materials would then be corrected, generally with an answer key. If the exercise was essentially correct, the student would be directed to work on more difficult material. If the exercise was incorrect, materials at the same level would be assigned, and in some cases, Meghan would instruct the student one-on-one. In the following example, Meghan works with Peter. Silvia and Peter together are reading Peters answers from his worksheet. At first
both read out loud together and then they go back and forth. Both Sylvia and Peter together: In May hey. Its May hey. Its a day away. Silvia: All right, read it again. Both together: Its a day away. We have the hay. Silvia: Hey. Ray had the hay. Both together: Ray had the hay. Silvia: Ray had the hay. Lay the hay away. Silvia: Hey, hay, day, lay, say, nay, use any of these letters to make words. Okay? Then theres a sentence and theres three words for each sentence. Okay? You have say, day, May, now finish the sentence Meghans teaching sessions were almost always focused on the materials, the objective being to help the learners to get their wrong answers right. When Meghan returned corrected materials or finished a one-on-one session, as in the following example she always closed the interaction with praise. Silvia : Okay. You just read fifteen sentences. Tadaa! You can read! You can read. You can read. You can read! All right, were going to start a new session. Okay? I can read. I can read. Okay? [Writes I can read on Rinas paper.] Okay? Whats that say? Rina: I can read. Silvia: Say it nice. Rina: I can read. Silvia: I can read. Say it like you mean it. I can read. If you know the letters and you know how to speak, you can read. I can read Megan assumed that if learners work was correct, they understood the lesson. She virtually never entered into diagnostic dialogue with learners to make sure that had understood the individualized lessons. As in all the classes we studied, the learners in Meghans classes were almost always engaged, primarily because motivation was high.
However, because Megan perceived her role to be primarily a manager of the individualized instructional system and rarely taught in the traditional sense, individualized materials were the objects of learners engagement. Because instruction was individualized, learners controlled when they would engage and for how long. They also had a considerable amount of control over what instructional materials they would engage in. Both Meghan and the learners measured progress by how well learners were progressing through the materials, but were they truly comprehending? If Cora and Janice in the next class are correct, the answer was not always yes. Cora and Janices class. Shortly after we had finished collecting data in Meghans class, Megan left to take a job in another state and Cora and Janice took over as the teachers. Cora and Janice moved to small group instruction, because after interacting with the lower level students in an individualized format, they concluded that the least proficient students were not understanding the material embodied in the exercises, even though they were often getting correct answers. The solution, they believed, was more direct teaching. Yet because of the size of the class, they lacked the capacity to provide a sufficient amount of direct teaching in the one on- one mode characteristic of individualized instruction. Cora and Janice divided the class of about sixteen learners into two groups. Cora took one group and Janice took the other. Students had no choice in the group they were assigned to. In explaining the reason for the move to small group instruction, Cora said: with working individually in a lower level class, they [the learners] require so much of your time, so much individual help that its just impossible to deal with just every person.
Its impossible. So the decision was made pretty early on, I would say within the first two weeks of just feeling around and both of us walking into a program that we had not taught previously. And, we just had to pick up the pieces of an existing program, and we decided right away, since there were two of us, we were going to start to do group
instruction We tried to make a very quick assessment of what their levels were within those two weeks, what their needs were, and to group them accordingly. And, realize that theres going to be some difference between levels at tables, but we felt an advantage to have people even groups with somebody who would be a little higher and somebody who would be very low, and somebody in the middle so they could drag each other along
because we just couldnt do it otherwise. Although Cora and Janice taught in the traditional sense of the term to their groups, their teaching still focused on the materials. The difference between their class and Meghans was
that the students engaged with the materials as a group guided by the teacher rather than individually. In one class, for example, Cora led the class through a materials-based exercise on traffic signs. The students were given a work sheet on which there was a series traffic signs. First, Cora called on a student to decode the sign and generally students were able to do this without difficulty. Then she asked the student to explain what the sign meant. This was more difficult for the group and Cora would not go to the next sign until she was convinced that all the students in the group understood the meaning. Dealing with the sign no passing, for example, took about ten minutes. In Cora and Janices class, students were engaged with both the materials and the teachers. Because of the role they had adopted, the teachers determined when learners would engage, how they would engage and the subject matter they would engage in. Because of the rule, we dont go on until everyone understands, the pace of instruction was elatively slow.

Discussion
According to state law, all adult literacy teachers who taught in public school sponsored adult literacy programs had to be certified as K-12 teachers. This meant that teachers in the classes we observed had been socialized into teaching roles through their own experience as elementary-secondary students, through teacher education, and in most cases through their experience as teachers in K-12 institutions. When it came to teaching adult literacy learners, however, their socialization was incomplete in at least two respects: they lacked experience teaching adults and they lacked experience with the IGI instructional system. Because the Center had no prescribed curriculum, teachers had to learn appropriate role behavior by falling back on those aspects of K-12 role behavior that seemed to be appropriate, by trial and error and to a limited extent by interacting with more experienced teachers. In essence, teachers had to self-define their roles. This meant, that lacking a common socialization experience in respect to adult literacy, teachers role behavior varied somewhat from class to class. The findings of this study demonstrate that how teachers define their roles is one of the factors that shaped learner engagement in instruction. In Meghans class, the adoption of IGI meant that learners had considerable control over when they engaged and over the pace of their engagement. The materials they were assigned determined what they engaged in and the materials directions determined how they would engage. Megans correct and direct role behavior may have meant, however, that the product of engagement was getting the correct answer and not necessarily comprehension. In their role behavior, Cora and Janice stressed comprehension and support over getting the correct answers and this led them to abandon IGI for small group instruction. In the small groups, however, engagement was teacher-directed and learners had little control over when they engaged, the pace of their engagement or how they engaged.

You are to write a 2-page paper. Read the article below and answer the discussion questions. State the question first and then continue to answer. Do Not Use Outside Sources.

Discussion Questions
1.What paradigms does the article represent?
2.What characteristics helped you identify the paradigms?

Hal Beder
Abstract: This paper addresses the question: What are the contextual factors that shape learners engagement in adult literacy education? Six adult literacy classes were studied at an urban adult learning center. Data sources included video, traditional ethnographic observation, stimulated recall interviews and open interviews. Findings focus on the ways that teachers roles shape engagement. This study addresses the question: What are the contextual factors that shape learners engagement in adult literacy education? Engagement is mental effort focused on instructional tasks, or in more simple terms, working hard at learning. When learners are engaged they are
focused on their work. Their eyes are moving, pages are turning and they are writing the answers to written exercises. When they are not engaged, they are talking about things irrelevant to the class, taking breaks, or simply day dreaming. Engagement is important to an understanding of adult learning because no one can learn unless they first engage. While there is a substantial literature on engagement in K-12 education, the present study is the first we were able to identify in adult education.

Literature
The literature on engagement can be classified into two traditions. In the first tradition, engagement is studied as a cognitive function closely associated with other cognitive constructs such as motivation and self-efficacy. Within this tradition, engagement is often termed cognitive engagement. In the second tradition, the relationship between engagement and the instructional context is stressed. Cognitive Engagement One of the first studies to focus on engagement as a cognitive function (Corno & Mandinach, 1983) forefronts self-regulation: an effort to deepen and manipulate the associative network in a particular areaand to monitor and improve that deepening process (p.
95). For self-regulated learners, engagement operates at the meta-cognitive level. As they engage, learners think about how they are learning and are therefore able to develop strategies that are optimally effective for them within a given learning context. Corno and Mandinach postulate three other types of cognitive engagement that fall short of self-regulation. Resource management is a form of engagement in which learners rely primarily, or exclusively, on
information from external resources to complete learning tasks. In recipience teachers supply learners with the information and strategies to complete learning tasks, thus removing any need on the part of the learner to make strategic learning decisions. In task-focus learners focus on a particular task, such as taking a test, without reaching beyond the parameters of the task to consider other strategic options. Although self-regulated learners may use resource management, recipience and task-focus at times, they are able to move productively between
them when appropriate.

Drawing in part on Corno and Mandinach, Meece, Blumenthal, and Hoyle (1988), examine the relationship between student goal orientations and engagement. Goal orientations are classified as task-mastery, ego/social and work avoidance. In task mastery, students seek to master and understand their work. In ego/social the students goal is to please the teacher and students with work avoidant goals attempt to do as little as possible. Meece et. al. found that
task mastery was more closely associate with active cognitive engagement than the other two types of goals. Like Corno and Mandinach, Pintrich (1990) was primarily concerned with self-regulation which he identified as having three components. The first is the students strategies for planning, monitoring and modifying cognition. The second is the students monitoring of the environment and the third is the use of learning strategies. Pintrich found positive relationships between motivation and self-regulation and that self- regulation had a positive affect on student
performance.

Engagement and Context
Because space limitations preclude an exhaustive treatment of the cognitive engagement literature, the above studies are but examples of the cognitive tradition. While studies within this tradition present intriguing possibilities for adult education (the concept of self regulation, for example, might be a productively applied to non-formal adult learning), nearly all the literature on cognitive engagement focuses on K-12 schooling. Because the context of adult literacy differs so substantially from K-12, we were reluctant to frame the present study on the cognitively-oriented literature. Rather, we decided upon a two-step strategy. The first step, represented by this study, employed a holistic qualitative approach in an effort to capture the relationships between engagement and the broad adult literacy context. Then, once those relationships had been established, the next step was to focus more narrowly on the cognitive aspects of engagement in a series of quantitative studies. The quantitative studies are in progress.
There are a number of studies that, like the study we present here, focus on the relationship of context to engagement. As with the cognitive tradition, most relate to public school schooling. Zimmerman (1994) for example notes that the instructional context must present options for students to choose how they will learn if they are to apply self-regulated learning strategies. Newmann (Newmann, 1981; Newmann, Wehlage, & Lamborn, 1992) focuses on the relationship between the schools organizational context and student alienation, and in turn, on the relationship of alienation to engagement. Anderson and Lee (1997) investigated the relationships between students motivation, engagement and the school as a social system, particularly in relationship to organizational culture, race and class. Skinner and Belmont (1993) focus on motivation, engagement and the relationship to teacher behavior.

Methods
The question that guided the research was, what are the factors that shape engagement in an adult education setting? The research was a qualitative study using grounded theory methodology. Over a three year period, it was conducted in six classes at an operational adult literacy learning center serving about 3,800 learners per year. Three classes were at the basic literacy level (approximate grade level 1-6) and three were secondary level courses. Data sources included videotaped observation, traditional ethnographic observation, stimulated recall interviews and open interviews. Videotaped observation was the primary data source. Video proved to be very valuable because it could be viewed over and over again to refine and verify analysis. However, early on we discovered that the camera angle was to narrow to encompass the entire classroom and thus off camera data were being lost. Hence we added traditional ethnographic observation to the protocol to ensure a more complete set of observational data. In stimulated recall interviews, one of the five-member research team viewed the video for episodes suggestive of emerging themes. Then the learner was interviewed by the researcher while the learner viewed the episode in
which he or she was the actor. In this way, what learners were thinking and feeling was added to the video record. As data collection and analysis proceeded, the five-member research team began to ask questions of the data that only learners could answer adequately. As a result, open ended, probing learner interviews were added. Teachers of the classes studied participated in data analysis and their observations were treated as data. In data analysis, a member of the team viewed a video and noted episodes that might suggest emerging themes or revisions of previously identified themes. Then the whole team viewed the selected video segments an commented on them. The results of the session were then written into a theoretical memo that was circulated to all team members who commented on
the analysis in writing, sometimes elaborating, sometimes disagreeing and sometimes adding new insights. Having multiple data sources allowed for triangulation in analysis. Finally, based on the data and memos, cases were written for each class and a thematic analysis was performed. As a member check, the teachers of the classes we observed read the final report and commented. No substantial inaccuracies were noted.


Findings
We found that that there were three primary factors that shaped engagement in the classes we studied: the instructional system, behavioral norms and teachers roles. Because of space limitations, this paper will focus on two of the six classes and on one shaping factor, teachers roles. Meghans class. Prior to working in adult literacy, Meghan had been an elementary special education teacher. Because she came to the class with no experience in either adult education or the individualized teaching-learning system used by the by the previous teacher, she
could not rely on prior socialization for informing teaching role behavior in the adult context. Thus, in deciding how to teach she patterned her behavior primarily on her perception of how the previous teacher had taught. The instructional system in previous use was one we have termed individualized group instruction (IGI). In IGI, which was employed for most of the reading, writing and math instruction at the Center, learners skills levels were diagnosed trough testing. Learners were then assigned to a class were they were given paper and pencil materials by the
teacher that were geared to their skill levels. Learners then worked individually on the materials and were assisted by the teacher when necessary. Although diagnosis, prescription, assessment and assistance were part of the IGI rubric wherever it was used, there were also variations in the way teachers employed IGI. We have termed Meghans variation of IGI, correct and direct. Meghans teaching included three steps, correct, direct, praise. Meghan would first assign students individualized reading or math materials based on their diagnosed skill level. Then students would work individually on the materials and would signal Meghan or Connie, the aide, when they had completed an exercise. The materials would then be corrected, generally with an answer key. If the exercise was essentially correct, the student would be directed to work on more difficult material. If the exercise was incorrect, materials at the same level would be assigned, and in some cases, Meghan would instruct the student one-on-one. In the following example, Meghan works with Peter. Silvia and Peter together are reading Peters answers from his worksheet. At first
both read out loud together and then they go back and forth. Both Sylvia and Peter together: In May hey. Its May hey. Its a day away. Silvia: All right, read it again. Both together: Its a day away. We have the hay. Silvia: Hey. Ray had the hay. Both together: Ray had the hay. Silvia: Ray had the hay. Lay the hay away. Silvia: Hey, hay, day, lay, say, nay, use any of these letters to make words. Okay? Then theres a sentence and theres three words for each sentence. Okay? You have say, day, May, now finish the sentence Meghans teaching sessions were almost always focused on the materials, the objective being to help the learners to get their wrong answers right. When Meghan returned corrected materials or finished a one-on-one session, as in the following example she always closed the interaction with praise. Silvia : Okay. You just read fifteen sentences. Tadaa! You can read! You can read. You can read. You can read! All right, were going to start a new session. Okay? I can read. I can read. Okay? [Writes I can read on Rinas paper.] Okay? Whats that say? Rina: I can read. Silvia: Say it nice. Rina: I can read. Silvia: I can read. Say it like you mean it. I can read. If you know the letters and you know how to speak, you can read. I can read Megan assumed that if learners work was correct, they understood the lesson. She virtually never entered into diagnostic dialogue with learners to make sure that had understood the individualized lessons. As in all the classes we studied, the learners in Meghans classes were almost always engaged, primarily because motivation was high.
However, because Megan perceived her role to be primarily a manager of the individualized instructional system and rarely taught in the traditional sense, individualized materials were the objects of learners engagement. Because instruction was individualized, learners controlled when they would engage and for how long. They also had a considerable amount of control over what instructional materials they would engage in. Both Meghan and the learners measured progress by how well learners were progressing through the materials, but were they truly comprehending? If Cora and Janice in the next class are correct, the answer was not always yes. Cora and Janices class. Shortly after we had finished collecting data in Meghans class, Megan left to take a job in another state and Cora and Janice took over as the teachers. Cora and Janice moved to small group instruction, because after interacting with the lower level students in an individualized format, they concluded that the least proficient students were not understanding the material embodied in the exercises, even though they were often getting correct answers. The solution, they believed, was more direct teaching. Yet because of the size of the class, they lacked the capacity to provide a sufficient amount of direct teaching in the one on- one mode characteristic of individualized instruction. Cora and Janice divided the class of about sixteen learners into two groups. Cora took one group and Janice took the other. Students had no choice in the group they were assigned to. In explaining the reason for the move to small group instruction, Cora said: with working individually in a lower level class, they [the learners] require so much of your time, so much individual help that its just impossible to deal with just every person.
Its impossible. So the decision was made pretty early on, I would say within the first two weeks of just feeling around and both of us walking into a program that we had not taught previously. And, we just had to pick up the pieces of an existing program, and we decided right away, since there were two of us, we were going to start to do group
instruction We tried to make a very quick assessment of what their levels were within those two weeks, what their needs were, and to group them accordingly. And, realize that theres going to be some difference between levels at tables, but we felt an advantage to have people even groups with somebody who would be a little higher and somebody who would be very low, and somebody in the middle so they could drag each other along
because we just couldnt do it otherwise. Although Cora and Janice taught in the traditional sense of the term to their groups, their teaching still focused on the materials. The difference between their class and Meghans was
that the students engaged with the materials as a group guided by the teacher rather than individually. In one class, for example, Cora led the class through a materials-based exercise on traffic signs. The students were given a work sheet on which there was a series traffic signs. First, Cora called on a student to decode the sign and generally students were able to do this without difficulty. Then she asked the student to explain what the sign meant. This was more difficult for the group and Cora would not go to the next sign until she was convinced that all the students in the group understood the meaning. Dealing with the sign no passing, for example, took about ten minutes. In Cora and Janices class, students were engaged with both the materials and the teachers. Because of the role they had adopted, the teachers determined whenlearners would engage, how they would engage and the subject matter they would engage in. Because of the rule, we dont go on until everyone understands, the pace of instruction was relatively slow.

Discussion
According to state law, all adult literacy teachers who taught in public school sponsored adult literacy programs had to be certified as K-12 teachers. This meant that teachers in the classes we observed had been socialized into teaching roles through their own experience as elementary-secondary students, through teacher education, and in most cases through their experience as teachers in K-12 institutions. When it came to teaching adult literacy learners, however, their socialization was incomplete in at least two respects: they lacked experience teaching adults and they lacked experience with the IGI instructional system. Because the Center had no prescribed curriculum, teachers had to learn appropriate role behavior by falling back on those aspects of K-12 role behavior that seemed to be appropriate, by trial and error and to a limited extent by interacting with more experienced teachers. In essence, teachers had to self-define their roles. This meant, that lacking a common socialization experience in respect to adult literacy, teachers role behavior varied somewhat from class to class. The findings of this study demonstrate that how teachers define their roles is one of the factors that shaped learner engagement in instruction. In Meghans class, the adoption of IGI meant that learners had considerable control over when they engaged and over the pace of their engagement. The materials they were assigned determined what they engaged in and the materials directions determined how they would engage. Megans correct and direct role behavior may have meant, however, that the product of engagement was getting the correct answer and not necessarily comprehension. In their role behavior, Cora and Janice stressed comprehension and support over getting the correct answers and this led them to abandon IGI for small group instruction. In the small groups, however, engagement was teacher-directed and learners had little control over when they engaged, the pace of their engagement or how they engaged.

You are to write a 2-page paper, read the article below and answer the discussion questions. State the question first and then continue to answer. Do Not Use Outside Sources!

Spencer's chapter focuses on three types of diversity: gender diversity, diversity of educational experience and diversity of programming with one area of practice (labor education).

Discussion Questions
1.Were you surprised at the categories he chose to ground his discussion of diversity?
2.How useful is this framework for understanding diversity with adult education, as a student and a practitioner of adult education?

Education for Diversity
That adult education should serve the needs of diverse groups for example, seniors, physically and mentally challenged, the unemployed, or should serve diverse causes, aims and organizations for example environmentalism, labor unions, leisure, cultural interests, is not always acknowledged in today's rush to make adult education and training accountable to economic objectives. Therefore, the idea that adult education should support and serve diversity, in all these different meanings and, thereby, serve pluralist democracy, is not always accepted. Diversity within the adult population as a source of strength; it enriches educational experience. However, it has also been viewed as a weakness -- used as a reason why particular groups have not succeeded educationally: women are no good at math and science, needed students do not pay attention, and African-American males are only good at sports. Adult education aimed at Canadianizing immigrants and First Nations, like second language education, has often been construed as correcting these deficits. Although education for citizenship has a proud history in Canada, it has not always been sensitive to the white, male, middle-class, Eurocentric nature of the social construction of Canadian citizenship. Indeed, the commonly accepted concept of a Canadian does not reflect Canada's official multicultural policy.
Diverse Audiences, Diverse Purposes
Although adult education has been responsive to dominate political and economic aims, it has also always served diverse audiences, needs and objectives. In some cases, this education is constructed by the learners themselves; for example, women in the Women's Institutes or in the suffragette movement. In other cases, it is coordinated by sympathetic provider; for example, Saint Frances Xavier University Extension work with co-operatives in the Antigonish Movement. Speaking generally, Adult Education has made a number of important contributions to knowledge generation and a whole range of areas, such as cultural studies, women's studies, indigenous studies, labor studies, adult literacy, vocational training and community development. This creativity and diversity can be seen as being at the very foundation of adult education practice. The inter- and cross-disciplinary nature of much of this work reflects the lived experiences of adult students. It is possible to explore all of these topics within this book. Therefore we will briefly reviews some of the issues as they apply to women in adult education, and then debate one example of diverse provision -- labor education.
Women in Adult Education
Women form a majority of adult education students. In many cases, this reflects the previous lack of educational opportunity afforded to women. In others, it may reflect a bias towards women's domestic crafts and local authority provision -- classes on cooking and needlecraft. In still other cases, it may reflect the fact that educational achievement is more important for the advancement of women's careers than it is for mens. But it may also represent, in part, a reference by women for social learning -- a recognition that feminist pedagogy include sharing, building trust relations, dialogue and storytelling (some of the elements of the Woman's Ways of Knowing, Belenky et al., 1986). Knowledge exploration and creation, on this understanding, is a group activity -- it is adult education. Women also form a majority of the teachers within adult education. This may reflect the part-time, often insecure, status of teachers of adults. It may also reflect the helping or nurturing (socially identified as typical of women's work) associated with much of adult education -- second language teaching and adult literacy are examples. Also, similar to the argument above about women students, women teachers may be attracted to work as adult and community educators because they recognize the opportunities therein for feminist pedagogy and practice. As in many other fields where women provide the bulk of the labor force, they are not similarly represented within the administrative grades of adult education nor in the top jobs in universities. Many adult students in postsecondary institutions are subject to the deficit model of education typified by adult upgrading courses aimed at achieving a high school diploma. The idea that they could begin a distinctive adult- education programs situated to their needs, which would situate their learning in their lived experiences, it is not acknowledged. Instead, adult students -- critically women, working class, indigenous an immigrant adults -- are treated not just as disadvantaged but as needing to catch up. The advantage their differences gives is not recognized, and the social biases of this advantage is individualized. The question that arises is, Catching up to what? As Dale Spender (1980) argues, the dominant model of education are still formulated and controlled by males. Dorothy Smith has explained male-dominated knowledge creation as a result of the circle effect whereby men talked to men, both past and present, and a tradition is formed in this discourse of the pass within the present (1975), a tradition which excludes women. (It can also be argued that it is a largely Eurocentric white, middle-class, abelist and heterosexual discourse.) Even the radical models of adult education, as represented by Freire, or post-structural/postmodern social theorist such as Foucault or Lacan, or the marriage of these into critical pedagogies by writers such as Giroux and McLaren have come under fire as male-dominated discourse (Luke and Gore, 1992). While some of this feminist critique may be overstated, its purpose is to pose a pedagogy of the possible, to celebrate agency or the possibility for social action, and to recognize the value of difference. The purpose of this critique -- promoting agency, recognizing value in difference -- essential to developing a doubt education as a social activity with diverse purpose; it is particularly germane given the gender composition of adult education. Some feminist writers have themselves been criticized for promoting any white, feminist discourse that excludes minority women and does not recognize women's multiple identities.
Increasing Access via Prior Learning Assessment and Recognition
a discussion of prior learning assessment and recognition could fit into a number of different sections of this book, but even the emphasis placed on prior learning assessment and recognition as a mechanism for increasing access to previously disadvantaged and under-represented social groups, we will analyze it here. A movement toward ranking recognition for prior learning began in the last two decades of the last century and is still gathering pace today. Prior learning assessment and recognition refers to the evaluation and acknowledgment of learning that occurs outside of formal credit-awarding training and education programs. Increasingly, educational and training institutions are accepting prior learning assessment and recognition as a legitimate method of gaining access to, or credit in, formal credential-bearing programs. Students are demanding that learning at work and in society be recognized within the traditional education institutions when they seek to make a transition to formal higher education or postsecondary training. Educators are increasingly confronted by the question of hw to fairly and accurately use prior learning assessment and recognition process to assess the educational merit of informal learning and non-formal adult education.[Prior learning assessment and recognition is the preferred term in Canada; other terms include: prior learning assessment, accrediting prior learning/assessing prior learning, accrediting prior experiential learning/assessing prior experiential learning and recognition of prior learning.] Whereas accrediting prior learning/assessing prior learning is sometimes reversed for transferring previous course learning and is different from accrediting prior experiential learning/assessing prior experiential, prior learning assessment and recognition will be used here to represent all of these terms. Prior learning assessment and recognition (PLAR) has become a worldwide movement encompassing Australia, southern Africa, Europe and North America with and establish international consortium for experiential learning. It attracts those who see PLAR as important for increasing access for previously disadvantaged groups, but also it attracts politicians and business leaders, which suggests they may well view PLAR as a mechanism that will help turn traditional higher education towards meeting the needs, priorities and interests of the real world, as they see it. Adult educators have always value students experience in the classroom, and while there is a broad support for PLAR for adult students, there are concerns about processes, the transferability of knowledge, and dilution of the social, emancipatory purposes of adult education. There are a number of ways of assessing prior learning; in these include challenge exams, portfolio assessments (the most common) and demonstrations of skills and knowledge. Transfer of credit is not included here since this essentially refers to the transferring credit gained from one institution courses to courses and programs of another. The essence of PLAR is the recognition of non-course learning gained experientially, perhaps as a consequence of volunteer or workplace activities or private self-guided study. PLAR can also include recognizing learning and non-formal adult courses and ascribing it credit. There are perhaps three basic assumptions behind PLAR: significant learning can and does take place outside the classroom, it should be evaluated for credit by educational institutions and by the workplace for hiring and promotion, and education and training that forces adults to repeat learning are insufficient, costly and unnecessary. The process of completing a portfolio is claimed as educational in itself, helping students to reflect on experiences, gain confidence and redefine goals (European commission, 2002). The process can be presented as very demanding and time consuming but given the number of credits awarded it is essentially time-saving and primarily concerned with reflecting on existing knowledge not new learning. Assessing portfolios is problematic and hinges on the students writing skills and their ability to translate experience into learning as well as the assessors method and sympathies. The process of PLAR is most often presented as theoretically Unproblematic: the vast majority of research focuses on the technical questions of how to measure learning swerved and also how to persuade traditional education institutions, and elitist academics, to accept PLAR credits (Thomas, 1998; European commission, 2002). The case for PLAR fits best with technical training programs that have identifiable skills and abilities as the course objectives. Behavioral learning theories that emphasize competencies or learning outcomes best fit within this instrumental approach to training. Students are encouraged to match their skills to the course outline and outcomes and claimed the credits. PLAR can be useful for workers to demonstrate that they have knowledge and skills that are needed for promotions or are applied to laddered skills-based job categories (for example in Australia). PLAR meets most opposition as a method of gaining credit within academic programs (particularly nonprofessional or applied); most courses in traditional academic programs are presented as non-instrumental since the knowledge areas, theories and learning processes of critical reading and writing on which they concentrate our outside of common discourse. Where PLAR is applicable to these programs is often easier to grant generic course credits that match up with the broad program goals that to grant specific course credit by a tempting to match up experiential learning with particular course learning outcomes (this broad approach is practice in France) (European commission, 2002).
Learning and Knowledge
PLAR raises the questions: Should all of adult learning be viewed in terms of what is measurable, exchangeable and credit worthy? For example, Derek Briton has argued that the use value of certain knowledge is being confused with its exchange value, what is very useful in one situation may not be exchangeable into course credits. It also undervalues experiential learning that can then be transferred (Brinton et al., 1998). This is not to claim that one kind of knowledge is superior to the other but rather that it is different. When individuals decide they need to know more about a certain topic in order to solve a particular problem at work, they are unlikely to be focus on developing critical reading and writing skills. In most cases, they are not going to seek out differing perspectives on a problem and then write an assessment of the arguments. This experiential learning can be useful when undertaking course based learning but it may be quite legitimate to argue that the prior learning is sufficiently different that it cannot be credited as if the applicant had undertaken the course of study (Spencer, et al. 1999). In these situations accelerated courses suited to mature adults may be most useful many individualized distance education programs allow for student self-paced, students can skip those sections of the course with which they are for media and focus on those are new. From a traditional adult education perspective, some of the issues involved in considering the importance of prior learning are very familiar. If we take a broad sweep of adult education we find that credentialism has overtaken many formally non-credential adult courses and programs. Traditionally, but don't education could be defined as outside of the postsecondary system. Courses were offered to achieve a number of purposes, including social and community building, for example, Canadian adult education can historically be defined as education for citizenship. The outcome of the course was not to be measured by a grade but by the reflections and social actions of its participants. The learning could be individual and social what it was not assessed for the purpose of credit. But don't educators adjusted noncredit courses to allow for rewards of credit they had to face up to many of the same issues that are associated with PLAR. A major challenge was to retain the social purposes and collective learning of traditional adult education practice while ensuring that the course would pass any external examination of its credit worthiness. In some cases, courses were abandoned or change significantly in order to adapt to this new learning environment. It cannot be argued that in all classes this was negative but it can be argued generally speaking of the learning objectives were changed to reflect what could be tested and credentialized. The same shift in emphasis -- from learning to credential -- can be observed in PLAR processes. At the core of many PLAR problems is a central contradiction of formal education that is writ even larger when considering experiential learning. The purpose of academic education is knowledge exploration and creation; the gaining of insight and understanding (in short: learning Post fences, but the outcome and importance of formal education is increasingly seen as the credential. As a result mny learners and educators substitute the credentials for learning as their central objective. For those seeking PLAR, credit recognition can become the only goal. Instead of using PLAR to focus attention on the gaps in the skills or knowledge -- what is yet to be learned -- the emphasis is placed on finding the fastest route to gain a credential. While this may be understandable it may not always be in the best interests of the diverse social groups PLAR is designed to help. PLAR emphasizes specific and general skills as the outcomes of learning rather than the gaining of insights and theoretical understandings around particular area of knowledge or social actions. But the transference gained through PLAR into academics (as opposed to applied) credits is mainly based on what knowledge has been gained. Amongst adult education scholars the usual starting point for a discussion about knowledge is Habermas -- for example, as used by Mezirow in his period of perspective transformation. Knowledge exploration is also linked to the distinction between critical thinking skills and critical thought as promoted in a critical theory. Critical thoughts begins by questioning belief systems and by asking who benefits from dominant ideas: its project is educational and emancipatory. It is very difficult to assess the areas of knowledge through PLAR, for example, it can be argued that this approach to learning will not usually be gained at work, especially given the narrow practices of our modern-day global corporations that demand loyalty and punish criticism. But don't educators have always acknowledged the importance of adult experience in the classroom but knowledge gained through experience is not unproblematic. For example, Freires work has been used to justify PLAR. But this reading of Freire ignores his understanding that experience was a starting place and could be very limiting and lead to a culture of silence. His arguments is for a dialogical and collective education that results in workers renaming the world they occupy and he eventually organizing change it. His concerns with self-awareness, action and reflection is similar to feminist scholars approaches to learning, discussed earlier, that can also be labeled experientially based on not experientially limited. However the academy does not have a stranglehold on what counts as knowledge-women's studies, labor studies, indigenous knowledge, cultural studies and the study of adult education all began life outside of the main halls and cloisters of the established universities. Mainstream education today steel downplays or ignores the experience of minority groups in society such a bad their own learning about who they are and what place they occupy within the dominant culture is undertaken outside the official curriculum. This illustrates that knowledge originating and gained outside of universities is important and in some cases is undervalued. Also working people are capable of breaking through the workplace ideology design to co-opt their compliance. Critical experiential learning and non-formal education such as that provided by labor unions, see below is relevant to some University programs.
Granting Credit
Credit can be granted on a modular or course-by-course basis or as program credit. Building PLAR into programs can have a significant impact resulting in a program tailored to meet mature-student needs. However any claim for extensive transference of experiential learning into higher education credits needs to be critically examine if it is to gain support of academics, as Hanson has commented rigorous though the technical requirements of PLAR may be they are of little help without a clear understanding of what they are measuring against and why. Accelerating an adult student to achieve degree completion may be beneficial in lots of different ways but may also result in them missing out on crucial areas of knowledge so the question of how much credit is granted and in place of work courses is important. Adult students do not have to travel the same road to a degree as a high school leaver; for example, adult life experiences may legitimately replace the elected courses designed to give breadth for younger students, even if it cannot substitute for core courses. What PLAR can do is help get adult students started an advanced in their studies making higher education more accessible to previously disadvantaged groups. Perhaps the most convincing argument for PLAR has nothing to do with whether or not any mature student has a particular knowledge that matches a higher education course. It may be possible to institute forms of PLAR that and to grant advanced standing/course credits to students though the recognition that their prior learning is extensive and deserving even if it is not specifically focused on course content. The rationale for doing this is simply not; most certificate and degree courses are designed to ground students in an area of knowledge and assume no prior knowledge beyond what could be expected from a high school student. Even when targeted and more matured students, they are mimicked on programs of study design for graduating high school students. Adult students may not need to undergo the exact same journey to arrive at the overall understanding of a particular subject area. For example, a student who has held a number of positions in her or his union over a number of years is likely to have insight and understanding that go beyond those that can be expected from the average 18 -year-old. Or, indeed those from another adult student with no such experience. If he or she is enrolled in a University labor-studies program is likely that the student with a rich union experience can damage treat creditworthy knowledge relevant to the program. A similar argument can be made for students engaged in other areas of study and prior program-related areas of knowledge, social work, nursing, business, women's studies, indigenous studies, etc. In the case of the labor studies student it may also be possible to grant some credit for noncredit union education course is undertaken non-formal education as well as for the experiential knowledge gained through union activity in formal. This may result in a student doing fewer University courses but they will steal have to take some-it does not exclude the student from undertaking the hard grind of coursework; from the task of critical reading and writing that are associated with academic work. What it does is accept that learning outside of the academy is valued and relevant; it may be different learning, from course based learning but it can nonetheless result in valuable knowledge some of which will be credit worthy. As noted above, many PLAR advocates are keen to reduce all courses to a list of outcomes or competencies, because they share a limited behaviorally influence view of education and learning. Within the competency approach content take second place to skills. The argument that a particular course has been put together in order to challenge a student's understanding of a particular area -- or to develop critical awareness around certain issues porch deepened insights -- leaves them cold. And for some courses it's the journey that is important not a specific outcome. For example, a particular history or literature course may consist of reading a set of texts carefully chosen for differing interpretations and designed to bring out contrasting opinions. Such a journey is unlikely to be traveled outside of the course. PLAR advocates should just accept that such a course is usually outside their remit. This kind of caveat is not to suggest that PLAR does not pose fundamental questions for the formal education system. For example what exactly are the core areas of knowledge that constitute a particular degree; what is the relevance of residency; and what is a first degree usually a four year (120 credits) program in North America? Many degree programs simply accept existing conventions while others have not undergone significant rethinking for yers. Although institutions allow small variations they essentially favor conformity a suggestion that one four-year degree program should be 120 credits and another 111 and yet another 93 would create organizational apoplexy. Comparisons with other programs would become difficult to systemize. A part from the general challenge posed by PLAR, what it also allows for is the individual candidate to challenge the course program and maybe make it fit better with the areas of skills and knowledge she or he needs and maybe after having earned PLAR credits, undertake a 93 credit, four year degree. While PLAR may emphasize access dramatically illustrated in post-apartheid South Africa there is still evidence from empirical studies across Europe that has benefited previously disadvantaged groups. PLAR has the potential to shake up traditional teaching but the mainstream promotion of PLAR does little to resuscitate the Democratic social purposes of adult education. It has the opposite tendency it emphasizes the argument that learning is essentially about skills and competencies useful for employment. The challenge for progressive educators today is no different to that of the past adult educators. It is to marry critical experiential learning that working people do engage in to critical theoretical knowledge within the academy -- to recognize experiential knowledge when it is appropriate and build on it when needed.

An Example of Diversity: Labor Education
Does adult education have to conform to the dominant economic paradigm? Can it serve diverse even opposite purposes? He does all contemporary of adult education have to blend with formal education provisions? The overview or labor education in Canada that calls describes one area of adult education about which little has been written. It is included here as an example of the diversity of adult education. It also illustrates the diversity of education that can exist with one category of adult education -- in this case, with labor education. At the end of this review we will revisit the questions above. The term union education can be used interchangeably with labor education in this chapter. The term union education is sometimes reverse for courses run directly by unions rather than by other providers. Alan Thomass reference to labor education blurts Canadian adult educators to an important sphere of adult education little known to them. This may not be so surprising because as he makes clear labor unions undertake most labor education themselves without the assistance of professional adult educators. Although funding by the federal government has been cut union controlled labor education remains a major provider of non-formal adult education for working people -- perhaps steal more important than companies workplace learning schemes. A main purpose of labor education is to prepare and train union lay an active role in the union. Another purpose is to educate activists and members about union policy about changes in the union environment such as new management techniques or changes in labor law. Labor education is also used to develop union consciousness to field common goals and to share organizing and campaign experience. Unions have a small full-time staff and therefore rely on what is essentially voluntary activity of their members to be effective at work. Labor education program is a major contributor to building an effect of volunteer force. Labor education also helps to sustain and build a labor culture an alternative knowledge of events and society. Most labor union members learn about the union while on-the-job what is often referred to as in formal or incidental learning. They probably learn more and are most active during disputes but they also learned from union publication and communications from attending meetings, conferences and conventions and from the unions educational programs. Although labor education only caters to a small number of members in any one year it is social as opposed to personal, education. It is designed to benefit a larger number of members because the course participants bring the education to other union members. Labor education has a social purpose -- to promote and develop the union presence and purpose so as to advance the union collectively. While labor centrals such as the Canadian Labour Congress and Canadian Federation of labor to collect information on the number of courses provided by their affiliates or by themselves and the number of union members attending they do not have the resources to compound statistical reports. There is also no consistency in the reporting of educational provision by affiliates, provincial labor bodies or independent unions. Courses might be provided by a union local or a labor Council or a may be offer collaboratively with local colleges. They may draw on funds provided provincially or nationally. The Canadian Labour Congress 60% of Canadians and union members belong to unions affiliated with the Canadian Labour Congress accounted for the largest slice of labor Canada funds. It is reported that 1,496 students received assistance from 24 provincial schools in 1992 and 1993 this the data is for both the weeklong schools which includes several courses and separate weeklong courses or workshops but estimated that between 10000 and 15,000 union members attend courses in which the Canadian Labour Congress was involved. If figures were added from the educational provision of individual unions in labor Council these figures could easily be triple but there are dangers of double counting. For example a course that is providing essentially for an individual union might be offered at a provincial Federation of labor school which is partly funded by the Canadian Labour Congress. However the education provision made by individual unions, union locals and labor councils is probably two or three times that made by the Canadian Labour Congress and other union centrals. There is also the question what counts as labor education? Does an in-company course offered to union safety committee members talked by union and management tutors count as labor education? If so does its field County supervisors and management committee members are present? Does a two-hour union introduction program for new starters count as labor education? Giving these kinds of problem it is probably of little value to attempt to pin down and accurate statistics of labor education in Canada. At best we can guesstimate based on the returns of labor Canada the records of individual unions and the assumption as to what constitutes labor education. Some of the statistics include the following: labor Canada provided educational funds for be independent, nonaffiliated unions in 1992 and 1983 on the basis of a total of 454,000 members. The independence claim 15,501 members participated in those funded courses giving a participation rate of 3.4%, to take an example of one union, the United food and commercial workers international Union calculates that 3227 of its Canadian members participated in courses over an 11 month. And another 668 members attended industry offices giving a participation rate between 2% and 3.5% over one year on a membership of approximately 170,000; as another example, the Ontario nurses association with 50,000 members educates 2000 (4%) members per year. Just as we can estimate the extent of labor education we can also provide a list of items to be incorporated within a working definition of labor education. Mainstream labor education includes the following: courses lasting at least one half day thereby omitting short talks and inductions for new members; all weekend, evening in daytime classes up to and including the eight week residential labor College of Canada course; courses essentially controlled by the unions and targeted at their members, union representatives and officials; course designed to enhance union effectiveness or developed union consciousness; and all courses for union members except specific job (vocational) training (but including couses on negotiating vocational training). Using this definition and statistical information available we can guess that some 12,000 union members per year 3% of the total underwent some of the labor education in Canada in the early 1990s. Such a guesstimate workplace Canadian Labour education at a level of provisions similar to that of the UK and Australia although there is probably less study time per student in Canada than in the UK. However it is much lower than the level of provision in Scandinavia 10% or more where there are a stronger tradition of union and workers education and different relations between unions and the state.
An Overview of Labor Education
Most labor education courses provide by unions can be divided into: tools courses for example shop steward training, grievance handling, health and safety representative courses, the next largest category is issued courses for example, sexual harassment, racism for new human resource Management strategies which often seek to link workplace and societal issues, and a third group of courses can be labeled labor studies and they seek to examine the union content for example, labor history, economics and politics. Tools courses directly compare members for active roles in the union to become representatives of the Union tools courses are targeted at existing or potential union activists. They are provided directly by the unions by labor federations or by union central such as the Canadian Labour Congress, the UK trade Union Congress, the Swedish Confederation of trade unions. Tools for example, by many of labor studies centers across the US and by educational institutions collaboratively with the central bodies or individual unions for example with colleges, universities, and the workers educational Association collaborating with the trade union congress in Britain. They may also be provided by specialize institutions such as the now defunct Australian trade union training Authority for South Africa's development institution for training, support, and education of labor. Many unions layer their courses with introductory comment intermediate and advanced courses and programs. Some of the introductory tools courses lead on to issue courses sometimes referred to as awareness courses which are specifically targeted at raising awareness and union actions around the issues discussed. In some cases there will not be a strict demarcation between tools and issues courses nor a requirement to undertake one before the other but the differentiation between types and therefore the aims and purposes of labor education can be useful for analytical purposes. The union movement also provides more expensive and demanding educational opportunities later said he such as the Harvard trade union program for lead officials, evening certificate courses in the UK and be Canadian Labour Congress is pride week residential labor College of Canada. The LCC teaches for courses -- labor history, economics, sociology and politics -- at a first-year university level in a four-week block. Labor law is now taught as a one-week course in the regions. Although the LCC uses some university educators and take place in the University of Ottawa it is a separate entity directly accountable to Canadian Labour Congress. This differs from the Harvard program with its more autonomous structure and from other US college programs and from the other built residential colleges in the UK such as Ruskin and Northern College. These offer year-long programs and are open to union members. Similar labor studies programs can be found in other countries and within some mainstream University offerings project late in the US, strata, New Zealand, and Canada although these are open to the general public. Perhaps the most innovative example of a labor study program offered to union members is in negotiating, paid educational leave program developed by the Canadian autoworkers and now also offered by the Canadian Union of postal workers. The intention of the dedicated labor study courses is to supplement trade Union tools and issue courses with a broader education program and in some cases to provide a research basis for union activity. Some universities are linking directly with unions to offer research collaboration for example, Leeds in the UK, Oregon in the US for study and research circles for example in Sweden. Although unions are usually represented on the boards of studies of the University -- and college-offered labor studies program they are rarely union control. The variations in the nature, structures and delivery of labor education courses are manifest. The difference between these types of courses are fluid some courses will have elements of each type in the one course; for example, and introductory course for shop steward could have a history of political economy component and an issue section. Where unions put their emphasis may vary depending on many factors such as the type of union philosophy abdicated-business unionism accommodated/adaptive versus organizing model oppositional/militant. The first philosophical approach may result in a greater emphasis on tools and less on labor studies. Curriculum and teaching methods for these core labor educational courses have been hotly contested over the years and have been linked in the assertion that labor education should adopt a public education or Freirian approach. In is extreme form it was argued that courses would have no specific course content but experientially based would respond only to the concerns of course participation attending a rectal course; and be led by facilitators rather than teachers. All other education approaches were dismissed as forms of banking education. While this debate may have been beneficial in reminding labor educators of the importance of democratic participation both in the classroom and in the union and the link between the two it also distracted attention from issues of course content. The need to address some of the key issues facing union members and to discuss information that may be outside of their immediate experience means a plant course content as well as participatory methods. John McIlroy illustrates how the emphasis on participation can mask a retreat into technical training courses denuded of content and represents a move away from the traditions of workers education committed to establishing it understanding of political economy among labor activist. It is more common now for unions to offer a range of courses with different focuses and to incorporate purchase drawing methods and experiential elements as appropriate: some courses are essentially experiential and others are not. Mike Newman 1993, has discussed the question of what adult educational philosophies in teaching methods are appropriate in making kinds of labor education courses and has shown that a range of different educational approaches can be beneficial. It should also be noted that unions in different countries to run women-only courses in courses targeted at specific groups of members; for example, CAW advertises courses for workers of color. The intention in these cases is to ensure those attending are not in a minority and any issues that are specific to them are not marginalized.
Other labor education, while tools and labor studies might describe the majority of labor education the definitions do not encompass all labor education offerings. Unions are directly involved in a number of membership education programs some of them with a basic skills or vocational purpose. In some cases and union-run literacy and second language courses are tutored by fellow unionists and act as a bridge linking immigration wore a literate workers to union concerns and publications. Certainly unions are responsible for number of worker training programs, which allow the unions to educate workers about union concerns alongside vocational training. In some countries skilled and professional unions have a long history in union-sponsored vocational training and education courses. Unions including non-craft union are becoming much more proactive in responding to company restructuring and deskilling and are arguing for reskilling, skills recognition and skills profiling as well as challenging employers to live up to their rhetoric on pay for knowledge. In some countries the unions have developed a comprehensive and integrated education and training programs such as Britain's unison open college, which includes labor education, basic skills, recognition of prior learning and vocational training opportunities for all union members. In Brazil program integrate offering union-sponsored labor education, vocational training and educational opportunities for the unemployed and is linked to the drive to create worker-owned co-operatives. In other situations and unions are engaging in partner of workplace-learning programs partnered with employers and other agencies such as NGOs. Unions are also involved in worker health and safety training this should not be confused with unions safety representative tools training, which may be joint management courses but they often allowed unions to argue for it a union view safe workplace as opposed to a management view state workers of health and safety. In some cases and union-run worker health and safety training has been used as a part of union organizing drivers. We should not ignore educational provisions for full-time officers within our purview of labor education. There has been a growing interest magically in Europe, Qubec and Canada generally in equipping full-time officers with the educational tools needed to conduct union business in a global economy. Unions have also had some limited involvement in television production such as work week or working TV in Canada or the labor education program broadcast in Britain and the late 1960s and early 1970s. Union representatives participate in television and radio programs in an attempt to present union perspectives influence public opinion and educate their members. Some unions are actively involved encouraging school to broaden their curriculum to include labor issues are providing packages of materials and by training and providing speakers for school visits. Also we should not ignore union-sponsored arts and cultural events such as Canada's MayWorks or Manchester, England's labor history Museum. In summary most labor education in Canada and elsewhere consist of tools training in issue courses targeted trade union activists. In addition union and unions central provides labor study programs often reserved for those activists who have been through the school and issue courses but sometimes targeted at members generally. If you educational institutions with the union to provide labor education more often labor studies program for labor unions across Canada. The unions are also involved in workplace literacy, work training program, and in televisual broadcasting all of which are targeted at members and you include some elements of labor education.
An example of union provisions: CUPEs five-level program, individual unions offer a range of courses for activists although the particular offerings will vary the kind of courses offered by CUPE are broadly typical of those of other Canadian unions. CUPEs six level education program is graded in leads to a certificate of completion for members will have undertaken the five levels of courses including CLC labor college. Courses in levels one to four are usually offered at weekends or weeklong seminars and are instructed by peer instructors or union staff. Broadly speaking, the levels are: new members and officers, steward training, collective bargaining, specialize courses, and labor college/Athabasca University distance education course and labor college residential program.
Level 1-new members and officers: level 1 includes a course called our union which is designed providing you will members and new low point unions with knowledge about CUPE and how it functions. It also shows participants held set up and run an effective union organization including union committees. For example, it explains the role of union officers and how to conduct meetings in of the course offered at this level is the financial Officer training which is a course specifically designed for Secretary-treasurers and trustees. Level 2-steward training: this level is divided into two courses the first is effect of stewarding a basic course which is primarily instructed by trained rank-and-file occasional instructors. The second course is advanced steward training which is usually presented by unions that. This course offers more analysis of contract language and arbitration cases than grievance handling component of the first course. Level 3-collective-bargaining; level 3 offers three courses to be taken consecutively the introduction to bargaining course attempts to demonstrate how many of the negotiating skills used in daily life were late to the collective-bargaining process. It also focuses on how to develop an overall bargaining strategy to achieve specific goals. The course includes: how to set up and pursue bargaining goals, dealing with the employer, the importance of good communication skills, leadership in bargaining, developing effective tactics, building support for bargaining goals both within the local and the community, the right to strike, and presenting a settlement to the membership. The second collective-bargaining course provides an overview of the collective-bargaining system as it exists in Canada today. It outlines the roles played by three main participants -- employers, unions, and governments -- and analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of the system. It introduces the CUPE standard agreement and deals in detail with a number of contemporary issues. The third course deals with formulating and substantiating collective-bargaining demands and helps participants use research and statistical materials. When the courses given in a seminar setting a mock bargaining session is a component. Level 4-specialize courses; level for is divided into three categories: advanced discussions of material already covered such as advance parliamentary procedure, application, public speaking, and face-to-face communications; courses designed to broaden the understanding of the role of trade union activity in the content of Canadian and world citizenship such as political action, understanding economics, labor law; and all the special issues courses such as health and safety training, WHMIS, pay equity, employment equity, contracting out, Aids in the workplace, union counseling. Level 5-labor college, the first two categories of level for serve the additional purpose of preparing members for level 5 labor college of Canada residential program. Most of these courses in the first four levels are available at weekend seminars sponsored by CUPE district councils. Specific courses are arranged for union locals and groups of them. In Ontario, the Ontario division sponsors of to three large weekend seminars with 10 to 12 courses and upwards of 350 participants. CUPE national also holds three weeklong schools in Ontario some of these courses are available on a correspondence basis as well. Many aspects of the CUP five level program are replicated by other unions at local, provincial and national levels. The mix of tool training and issue courses is common to typical union education programs in calendar however in some unions the level for courses on economics or labor law are left to the CLC-sponsored provincial federation in labor schools. Course offerings also reflect the problems faced by vertically industrial sector for example, the UFCW includes courses on repetitive strain injury as well as more common health and safety topics it also has programs on layoffs and closures and an extensive union-sponsored literacy program.
Professional unions: nurses and teachers, a growth area of organized labor in Canada since the 1960s has been public sector professionals some of who are organize within existing unions but more typically are organize independently into provinial unions such as the Ontario nurses Association or the British Columbia teachers Federation. Most of these are not affiliated to any labor central although there has been a move towards that for example with University faculty. Many of the programs run by these organizations are similar to those of other unions about some reflect professional concerns for example the ONA has a program of professional responsibility which encompasses the dual accountability of nurses as employees and as professionals the British Columbia teachers Federation include courses on a code of ethics and violence in school within their programs. Other courses offered reflect the particular situation facing members such as courses of assertiveness training for nurses on a political lobbying for both groups. The British Columbia teachers Federation in preparation for a shift from localized centralized bargaining extended the availability of their education programs to include more local representatives who might be involved in contract administration. The unions or professional associations face a number of problems while the problems are not unique to professional unionism they are common to them. These include: the costs involved in gathering together representatives from scattered workplaces; getting time off and meeting the costs of wage loss or replacement labor for example a supply teacher/substitute teacher; and the problem of developing a union consciousness among members. The British Columbia teachers Federation would argue that what they are trying to do is to develop a critical consciousness among their members are gently and often general courses on educational themes. It is clear that such programs also aimed to build union activity by encouraging members to identify issues on which the union should campaign. Some unions have directly tackled the problem of developing union and class consciousness through a membership education program
Membership education: the Canadian autoworkers, a number of unions are running membership education courses targeted at the broader membership and not just union activists. The most distinctive and intensive is that offered by the Canadian autoworkers this program which is now emulated by the Canadian Union of postal workers is not focus narrowly on preparing representatives for collective-bargaining but on promoting an understanding of the unions social and political goals. The Canadian autoworkers and its predecessor the Canadian section of the remaining autoworkers have been running extensive educational programs for their members and activists throughout the postwar period. Since the split of the United Auto Workers, the Canadian autoworkers has refurbished its family education Center at Port Elgin, Ontario on the shores of Lake Huron and overhauled its education programs. Central to this refurbishment is the unions paid education leave program. The program is funded by 2 to 3 cents per member per hour benefit negotiating contracts with employers. The money goes into a trust fund and is used to pay for lost wages, travel, accommodations and the education program. The bargaining unit usually a particular local can stand as many members as its contributions allows. The program consists of four weeklong residential courses usually separated by two to three weeks back at work. The program is preview by applicants at a weekend residential school to which applicants partners are invited and commitments are made to take the full course. A paid educational leave course would typically consist of 130 members subdivided into six groups the union also offers a program in French. By 1986 more than 5000 members had completed the basic Canadian autoworkers/paid educational leave program. There have been some changes in the program but originally each week/level of the basic four-week course had a separate theme: level 1 the present as history, level 2 sociology, level 3 political economy, and level for social/political change. Some studies skills for example basic math and reading and union representatives skills for example reporting an effective speaking were built into the course. There were also committees established at the outset from among course members which mere of the kind of committees onto reading throughout the union -- substance abuse, international affairs, women, human rights, cultural and recreation. These committees organize events during the course and make recommendations to the course coordinator. The course concluded with a convention mock-conference focusing on the wide range of issues address during the course and reported on by the committees. Local union discussion leaders led the sessions. The volunteers are union activists will release can be negotiated for a particular week their rages are paid out of paid educational leave trust fund and who have received additional leadership training. In addition to training and teaching methods these lay tutors meets annually to discuss changes in course content and updates to materials. There is plenty of opportunity for student experience and knowledge to be used within the groups although the approach used in material-and subject based rather than relying on student experience from course content. The union's purpose is to provide a broad educational experience with challenges their members to question social, economic and political structures and to review the role of unions in society. They discussed the relationship between national and international questions as well as bills between union members. It is clear from talking to members that the course is an eye opener for many participants, particularly for those who conceived of the Union as having only a limited role. Experiences is also social, contracts are made in members gain an understanding of the dip in work and community situations. Articles and books are read and videos exchanged, newspapers are gutted and discussed. It is always difficult to evaluate the impact of this kind of course. The Canadian autoworkers contend that a majority of participants leave with the heightened union and social consciousness and that a substantial minority are prepared to take on union positions as a result. A4-week residential membership education program is a model for the kind of paid educational leave that can be won through negotiations its future, though, is dependent on what can be achieved in negotiations. A substantial number of students come from plants in the big three auto companies and those companies can be affected by layoffs and staff reductions. The union is committed to extending the paid education leave clause to all its contracts in all of the new sectors merging into Canadian autoworkers. Approximately 75% of bargaining units covering 93% of the union's total membership have negotiated paid educational leave. The biggest threat to the program comes from plant closures and the continuing restructuring of the Canadian economy. It is important to recognize that the employer has no influence over the paid education leave program. It is not employer-page time off as experience in some joint Union/management training courses. Once the contract includes a paid education leave clause the money collected goes into the Canadian autoworkers-page education leave trust fund which pays for lost wages and expenses of members will attend the course. The member receives full-time off without pay from the employer. There is no government influence over the educational programs a union offers its members. The program is now being emulated by CUPW, who have negotiated a three cents per member levy. They use the Port Elgin facility to run a number of paid educational leave classes alongside Canada autoworkers courses in preparation for their separate CUPW program.
Internationalism: Steelworkers humanity fun education program, the Canadian autoworkers and CUPW paid education leave program is not the only membership education program to include international issues a number of unions offer courses specifically on international isues and given the increasing globalization of capital and the growth of free-trade deals is important to consider how unions have responded educationally to these developments. One of the most distinctive courses is that of the Steelworkers. What follows is a description of a course called thinking north-south developed by the Steelworkers humanity fund which is taught in Steelworkers weeklong schools. Rank and file activists drawn from the 280 bargaining units which have contributed to the humanity fund spend a week together thinking about the workings of the global economy. Over 110 rank-and-file workers throughout Canada has participated in the course by 1992. 15 have also traveled to visit projects in El Salvador and Peru. The course was offered seven times in a two-year period, 1991 to 1992 using participatory educational methods. Participants mapped out the workings of the global economy starting with their own workplace and eventually create a complex map linking structural adjustments in the South with free trade in the north. The instructor team which includes worker-instructors who have done the course and travel to other countries have experimented with different approaches. One course included a role-play of press conference given by delegations at an international meeting in the hemispheric initiatives. The Peruvian delegation and Canadian delegation made representations on current economic policies the journalists were divided into labor and mainstream press. The course has stuck with the question of how the media frames visions of the South as a recipient of charity rather than as a potential partner in solving world problems. One video use was Simon Ngubane, a history of the South African metal workers. Responses to the video included: I had no idea there was such a sophisticated trade union movement in South Africa or why does TV jet show us black on black violence instead of news from trade unions? In addition to teaching internationalism Canadian unions sponsor international educational activities the more expensive understanding for broader national and international context is often the focus of international labor studies courses.

I first want to clear that I need "5 book sources" done. The rest can be Internet. So at least 5 books, and the other 5 can be internet. I have sources sorted from internet that I want you to use. They are explained below:

In the following paper I want research information on rehabilitation of men and women prisoners. With this research, I want to find who are better rehabilitated, men or women? This paper will examine various aspects of rehabilitation of prisoners and the different approaches that can be tried for the rehabilitation of men and women in prison.

(Paragraph 1)Rehabilitation of Prisoners: In this section I want discussed what rehabilitation program does to both men and women. I will talk about how rehabilitation prepares a prisoner for when they are released back into society. The prisoner will have a task of their own, depending on the prison or even the country they are in. (Howell 2001)Prisoner rehabilitation is essential for the society so that it can have upright and useful working for its gain rather than unhappy or unproductive person.

(Paragraph 2) United States Prison Statistics: In this section I want to go over population of men and women in prisons. I will find out how these people made it there. Also, I will research how much money is put into these overcrowded prisons. Perhaps rehabilitation and the expenses that are associated with it may be the reason why capital punishment exists. (University of Virginia 2004).

(Paragraph 3) Some Prison Rehabilitation Programs: I want, elaborate on programs such as education and work for these inmates in this section. States such as Oregon and Missouri that introduced appropriates jobs to the prison system. Also, Prisons plans for inmates nowadays are to overcome problems such as mental, social or educations that inmates are lacking through literacy program, drug treatment or job training. (Day, 2004).

(Paragraph 4) Women Prisoners and Rehabilitation: This part of the paper will be going over the increase of women in prison. My research will be comparing women with men in prisons. Women prisoners are assigned tasks that are of a female?s roles, such as laundry or in the kitchen. (McClellan, 2004). Education programs are available for women prisoners, as well as men. I will discuss the cost of female prisoner compared to male prisoner.

The following are internet sources I want used please:

(1) Julie Browne. ?The Labor of Doing Time.? 2004. California Coalition for Women Prisoners. April 5, 2004. http://womenprisoners.org/fire/000160.html

(2) Susie Day. ?Cruel but Not Unusual: The Punishment of Women in U.S. Prisons.? July 2001. Monthly Review. April 5, 2004. http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m1132/3_53/77150229/p1/article.jhtml

(3) Kevin Howells. ?Treatment, management and rehabilitation of women in prison: relevance of rehabilitation principles.? 2001. Australian Institute of Criminology, Conference on Women in Corrections. April 5, 2004. http://www.google.com.pk/search?q=cache:XWVKiuWv79IJ:www.aic.gov.au/conferences/womencorrections/howells.pdf+rehabilitation+of+men+and+women+prisoners&hl=en&ie=UTF-8

(4) Dorothy S. McClellan. ?Coming to the aid of women in US prisons.? June, 2002. Monthly Review. April 5, 2004. http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m1132/2_54/87424635/p1/article.jhtml

(5)University of Virginia. ?Women in Prison: References.? 2004. University of Virginia. April 5, 2004. http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/prisonstudy/subpages/references/references.html

Sources 6-10 I want BOOK SOURCES ONLY please...

You are to write a 3-page paper. Please read the article below and then answer the discussion question. State the Question first and then continue to answer. *Do Not Use Outside Sources.*
Discussion Questions

1.How can adulthood be socially constructed? What does it mean to say that something is "socially constructed"?

2.What are the strengths and weaknesses of an individual or social perspective on adult learning? Is one more relevant than another in certain contexts?


Linking the Individual Learner to the Context of Adult Learning: by Caffarella & Merriam
As educators of adults we have long been driven by two primary perspectives in how we work with adult learners. Until recently, focusing on the learning process of individual learners has dominated the way we think about adult learning. This perspective still permeates much of our practice from our continued belief that responding to individual learning styles is critical in working with adults, to a wish for some kind of magic memory pill that will help us learn more efficiently. In the second perspective, the context within which adults learn becomes an essential component of the learning process. There are two important dimensions to the contextual approach to learning what were calling interactive and structural. The interactive dimension acknowledges that learning is a product of the individual interacting with the context. The most effective learning is that which takes place in authentic, real life situations. Translated into practice, this has led to incorporating internships, role playing, simulations, and apprenticeships into our instruction. The Structural dimension of context takes into consideration the social and cultural factors that affect learning such as race, class, gender, ethnicity, and power and oppression. The structural factors have long been a part of our educational systems. There are some who strongly favor the more psychologically driven paradigm of viewing learning as a process internal to the individual, while others clearly adhere to the contextual approach to learning. As researchers and practitioners, we have for the most part viewed these two perspectives as separate and distinct ways of conceptualizing learning in adulthood. One side speaks from the merits of seeing every learner as an individual with unlimited potential, while the other fights for basic social change as fundamental to education practice. Although both of these perspectives are important in understanding adult learning, we believe that either perspective by itself is too limiting in addressing the complex array of issues and problems we face in working with adults. Therefore, we advocate a third way of conceptualizing adult learning that of thinking the individual and contextual perspectives. For us, advancing this third perspective has been a major change in our thinking and a challenge to incorporate into our practice as teachers and scholars. While we were both schooled primarily in the individual perspective, it has come clear to us in recent years that often the two are so interwoven that our practice is incomplete if we only address one. This change in our thinking and practice has come from our continued in depth review of the adult learning literature, and in particular, feminist and critical theory and our experiences with diverse learners and cultures in both formal and informal settings.
The individual learner
A focus on the individual learners has a long tradition and history in adult learning and has until recently been how both the researchers and practitioners in adult education have fashioned their craft. Two basic assumptions from the foundation for this perspective. First is that learning is something that happens primarily internally, inside our heads. In essence the outside environment is given little if any attention in the way what we think and learn. Second, this perspective is based on the assumption that all adults can be effective learners, no matter what their background or situation. A sampling of topics that are grounded primarily in this perspective include: participation and motivation, self directed learning, andragogy, transformational learning, memory and learning, learning style, intellectual and cognitive development, and the neurobiology of learning. Three of these topics are discussed illustrate this perspective: participation and motivation, self directed learning, and transformational learning.
Participation
Participation is one of the more thoroughly studied the areas in adult education. We have a sense of who participates, what is studied, and what motivates some adults and not others to enroll in a course for undertake an independent learning project. Beginning with the landmark study of Johnstone and Rivera, scholars have sought to describe the typical adult learner. What is interesting is that the original profile put forth by Johnstone and Rivera has changed little over the past 30 years. Compared to those who do not participate, participants in adult education are better educated, younger, have higher incomes, and are most likely to be white and employed full time. This accumulation of descriptive information about participation has led to the efforts to build models that try to convey the complexity of the phenomenon. The work on determining why people participate that is, the underlying motivational structure for participation has been carried on most notably by Boshier and others using Boshiers Educational Participation Scale. Between three and seven factors have been delineated to explain why adults participate, such as expectations of others, educational preparation, professional advancement, social stimulation, and cognitive interests. A number of other models, grounded in characteristics of individual learners, have been developed to further explain participation; several of these models also linked a more socio-demographic or contextual approach with that of the individual backgrounds of learners. Studies in participation and motivation have had wide reaching effects on the practice of adult education. Many of those have come to expect the instructor will take into account their individual needs and desires and may leave programs when these are ignored. In addition, an area that always seems to interest educators of adults are ways to motivate and retain learners once they are enrolled in programs. This interest in motivation and retention is both a function of wanting to address individual participants needs in motives for attending as well as an economic necessity for adult education programs that operate as profit centers. We also design and market numerous programs in adult education related to what we know about why adults participate. The many job related programs that are offered by a variety of organizations are good examples of matching program content with one of the major reasons why adults participate in formal educational programs.
Self-directed Learning
Although learning on ones own or self-directed learning as been the primary mode of learning throughout the ages, systematic studies in this arena did not become prevalent until the 1970s and 1980s. The majority of this work is grounded in humanistic philosophy, which posits personal growth as a goal of adult learning. Therefore, understanding how individuals go about the process of learning on their own and what attributes can be associated with learners who are self-directed have been the two major threads of this research tradition. The process of self-directed learning was first presented as primarily linear, using much of the same language we use to describe learning process informal settings. As more complex models were developed, this emphasis began to shift to viewing the self-directed learning process as much more of the trial and error activity, with many loops and curves. In addition, as in the participation literature, contextual aspects of the process, such as the circumstances learners found themselves within, were found to also be important. In pactice, the study of self-directed learning has led instructors and program planners to use such teaching tools as individualized learner plans or contracts and to test learners for their readiness to engage in self-directed learning. For example, individual learning plans and contracts have been used in a variety of ways, from framing the whole program of professional development and even graduate study, to being used as one format among many within a set of learning activities. The use of learning contracts allows participants to write their own learning objectives, choose how they will learn the material, and evaluate what they have learned; in essence, they are given the opportunity to individualize their own learning. In addition, a number of organizations have chosen to equate self-directedness in learning with the ability to be lifelong learners. Many public schools, colleges, and universities, for example, now include the promotion of self-directed learning as a part of their mission statements.
Transformational learning theory
And other major strand of research that is grounded primarily in this individual perspective is transformative or transformational learning theory. First articulated by Mezirow in 1978, transformational learning theory is about changedramatic, fundamental changes in the way individual see themselves and the world in which they live. The mental constructions of experience, inner meaning, and critical self reflection are common components of this approach. Self reflection is often triggered by a major dilemma or problem and may be undertaken individually as well as collectively with others who share similar problems or dilemmas. The in result of this process is a change in ones perspective. For example, a person has a heart attack and though a process of self-examination decides that the type A lifestyle that she has lived is no longer a positive action; or a newly divorced, single-parent reworks his understanding of the parenting role. Although there are a number of writers who have or would like to connect this transformational learning process more to it a social action, the predominant work has been and continues to be done from the individual perspective. Only the few educators have looked at how to operationalize the work on transformational learning into the formal practice of Adult Education. Cranton and Mezirow, for example, have offered both philosophical discussions and practical strategies and techniques that instructors use in fostering and supporting transformational learning. Yet the implementation of transformational learning brings with it many practical and practical questions. Do we have the right as adult educators to ask people to examine and change the basic life assumption as part of our educational programs? Can we expect learners to freely share this type of learning experience? Should we actually precipitate such a learning experience by posing real dilemmas or problems that forced learners to examine who they are and what they stand for as individuals (at least if they want to pass a class or earn a certain credential)? And it do we have the competencies as a dove educators from our current training to assist learners through a transformational learning process? What makes these various orientations individual is the presumption that adult learning is primarily an individual, psychological process only relatively shaped by contextual factors. As noted throughout this discussion of the individual learner perspective, though, some of the work has taken into account the contextual factors that we explore more in depth in the next section of this chapter. Actually in the last decade it has become more difficult to place topic areas into one camp or the other. Still, the majority of work on these and other topics mentioned draw heavily from psychology and are grounded in thinking about learners as individuals.
The contextual perspective
The contextual perspective takes an account to import elements: the interactive nature of learning and the structural aspects of learning grounded in a sociocultural framework. Although the contextual perspective is not new to adult learning, it has resurfaced as an important consideration over the past decade. The interactive dimensions acknowledge that learning cannot be separated from the context in which the learning takes place. In other words, the learn the situation and learning context are as important to the learning process as what the individual learner and/or instructor bring to that situation. Recent theories of learning from experience, situated cognition, cognitive and intellectual development, and writings on reflective practice in form the dimension of the contextual approach. In exploring the interactive dimension of the contextual perspectives we focus and two interrelated areas: situated cognition and reflective practice.
Situated cognition
In situated cognition, one cannot separate the learning process from the situation in which the learning takes place. Knowledge and the process of learning within this framework are viewed as a product of the activity, context, and the culture in which it is developed and used. The proponents of the situated view of learning argued that learning for everyday living which includes our practice as professionals have been only among people acting in culturally organized settings. In other words, the physical and social experience at situation in which learners find themselves in the tools they use and that experience are integral to the learning process. And practice situated cognition can be incorporated into the learning process through attending more closely to our everyday world to developing highly sophisticated simulations of real-world activities and events. For example, in the teaching of well baby care to low income mothers, new mothers are encourage to bring their newborns to class and actually practiced their new knowledge and skills. In addition, the old staff visit these mothers to see how their home situations can either enhance or detract from actually using what they have learned. The old staff may even more toward changing aspects of the context by helping these new mothers access adequate healthcare and decent housing. As another example, technological base simulations of real-life bring to bear all of the possible outcomes than the learner might have to face and carrying through a particular job or responding to a crisis situation. A flight simulator in which a pilot flies a plane in all kinds of weather conditions or computer simulations of floods or hurricanes for relief workers are examples of how technology has made situated cognition and integral part of education and training programs. The tenants of situated cognition are often played out in reflective practices. Reflective practices allow us to make judgments in complex and murky situations, judgments based on experience and prior knowledge. One way that Adult Education have integrated and interactive reflective mode into their work is through what to Schon has termed reflection-in-action. Reflection in action assist us in reshaping what we are doing while were doing it and is often characterized as being able to think our feet. In addition to Schon work, useful models of using reflective practice and a conceptual way in clue the new work of Boud and Walker, Boud and Miller, and Usher, Bryant, and Johnstone. The interactive reflective mode has been incorporated into practice in a number of ways. For example, in training instructors on how to a teach adults, the practicing teacher and learner are asked in the middle of a teaching scenario to reflect on what can Schechter has done that has been helpful to the learning process and what can be improved. The practicing teacher at the end either continue and incorporate what she had learned as she commences teaching, or she may start the teaching of the soul over again after she has had a chance to revise the lesson. The second way to incorporate this form of reflective practice into our teaching i to have learners pay attention to the here and now of the learning situation that is, what they are thinking and feeling now about whatever content is being discussed. Tremmel terms being mindful and awareness of the present moment. Mindfulness moves away from mindless absorption in the endless parade of thoughts through the mind. When one is mindful, one lives in the present and pays attention pure and simple.
The structural dimensions
The second dimension of the contextual perspective, the structural dimension, argues that factors such as race, class, gender, and ethnicity need to be taken into consideration in the learning process. Being white or of color or being male or female, for example, does influence the way we learn and even what we learn. The structural dimension of a dealt learning is interwoven into a number of research trains, such as work on a dealt cognitive development, a dealt development and learning, and participation studies, and indigenous learning. The strongest voices for the structural dimension are those scholars writing from a feminist, critical, or postmodern viewpoint. Those that a adult learning from these theoretical perspectives asked questions regarding whose interests are being served by the program being offered, really has access to these programs, and who has the control to make changes in the learning process and outcomes. Further, our assumption about the nature of knowledge including what counts as knowledge, where it is located, and how it is acquired are also a challenge. Fundamental to these questions are the themes of power and oppression in both the process and organization of the learning enterprise. Are those who hold the power really operating in the best interests of those being educated? Do our behaviors and actions as educators actually reinforce our power position, or do they acknowledge and use the experience and knowledge of those with whom we work, especially those who have been traditionally underrepresented in our are dealt learning program(such as the indigenous, or people of color)? Do we use our power as instructors and the leaders in Adult Education to either all void or band discussions about the importance of race, gender, ethnicity, and class and the adult learning enterprise? Some of the clearest messages on how to translate this structural contextual dimension into practice have come from feminist and multicultural writers. For example, using insight from both multicultural education and feminist pedagogy, Tisdell has explored how to make our practice as adult educators more in schools of people from a variety of backgrounds. She emphasizes the importance of understanding both the specific learning context of the classroom or learning activity and the organizational context in which one is working. Is there something within either of these contexts that would inhibit learners from speaking and especially from challenging predominate views and ideas? Or does the instructor incorporate ways for the learner to challenge what they are being taught in an open and positive way? Tisdell goals all and to suggest specific ways to create the inclusive learning environments including acknowledging the power disparity between the teacher/facilitator and the students considering how curricula choicest implicitly or explicitly contribute to challenging structured power relations, and adopting emancipator teaching strategies. Other insights for practice have come from people writing about the learning of indigenous cultural groups. Cajetes book on the tribal foundations of American Indian education is a useful example of this type of material. In his book, Cajete speaks to the importance of tapping into the ethnic backgrounds and ways of knowing for indigenous people. More specifically, he emphasizes techniques such as storytelling, dreaming, and artistic creation as methods for doing this. What is interesting about Cajetes observation is that he captures both the conceptual perspective of learning and the spirit of individual learners and teachers. As he states: the integration of the inner and outer realities about learners and teachers must be fully honored and we must engage both realities to make our educational process complete. He and others including ourselves have argued that both perspectives, the individual and the contextual, should inform our practice as educators of adults.
Linking the perspectives
Linking the individual and contextual perspectives can provide us with yet another way of gaining a more comprehensive understanding of learning and adulthood. What this means is that those of us who work with a belt learners need to look at each learning situation from two major lenses or frames: an awareness of individual learners and how they learn, and an understanding of how the context shapes learners, teachers, and the learning transaction itself. A number of adult education scholars acknowledge the importance of taking into account both the individual and contextual perspectives. Their work provides a starting place for both researchers and practitioners who want to gain a better understanding of this integrative perspective of adult learning. For example, Jarvis writes that learning is not just a psychological process that happens in splendid isolation from the world in which the learner lives, but that it is intimately related to that world and affected by it. Likewise, Tennant and Pogson highlight both psychological and social development and their relationship to a double learning. They shreds that the nature, timing, and the process of development will vary according to the experiences and opportunities other individuals and the circumstances in their lives. Heaney emphasizes that a narrow focus on individual in the head images of learning separates learning from its social conscience, both the social relationship which are reproduced in us and the transformative consequences of our learning on society. From Heaneys perspective, learning is an individuals ongoing negotiation with communities of practice which ultimately gives definition to both self and that practice. In a more practical vein, Pratt and associates outlined alternative frames for understanding teaching in a way that captures both the individual and contextual nature of adult learning. Some teachers, for example, focused more on individual learning in their practice those who fall under Pratts nurturing perspective, others adopt more of what Pratt terms a social reform perspective more contextual in nature, and still others combined frames and therefore address both the individual and contextual side of the learning transaction. As teachers and program planners, we are often challenge to consider both what the individual brings to the learning situation as well as the life circumstances of the learner at any particular point in time. Furthermore, the organizational context in which learn takes place will have an impact on the nature of the learning transaction. Taking a course in computer technology and the university is part of a credit program, versus a three-day training session at work, versus a workshop sponsored by community agency such as local library, will make a difference in how the course is taught and what learning takes place. To illustrate how taking account of both the individual learner and contextual factors can eliminate our understanding of learning, we offer the following three scenarios and comments.
Scenario 1
Marie a first generation Hispanic is an assistant supervisor of a production unit in the local automotive plant. She would like to be promoted by lacks a high school diploma, an essential credential for a supervisor. She decides to attend an evening class to prepare for the GED. After finding childcare for her two young children, she attends classes readily, making progress in preparing for the exam. After several weeks she no longer shows up for class. For an individual learning perspective the teacher would explain the recent behavior in terms of her ability to actually do the work, or prhaps detest anxiety as the time for the GED exam grew closer. She might also question whether Marie really wanted a promotion, which appeared to be the major motivating factor for earning her GED, from a contextual perspective the teacher would view the situation quite differently. She would not automatically assume it was Maries fault or problem, but would consider other issues. For example, were there pressures from family members not to contribute? Perhaps they feel she does not need any more education especially when it means leaving the kids home with a sitter a couple of nights a week. Were there childcare problems, and if so, as she convinced the company that it would be in their own best interest to provide childcare services as a part of the program? After all, as a result of this program, at least Marie would have be potential to be promoted according to the company policies, the teacher might also consider whether her teaching methods more appropriate for Marie, at first generation Hispanic woman. Could the teacher better connect the skills she was teaching to Maries work and home life? In reality more recent research on participation and retention in adult literacy programs often ignore a social context of learners livesthe world learners live in and deal with everyday life and therefore the most literacy programs minimize or overlook cultural, social, economic, ethnic, and gender injustices not everyone has a fair and equal chance in society. If a literacy curriculum helps learners to problematize there world so that they can see that their situation is not necessarily their fault, they can begin to gain greater control over their lives.

Scenario 2
David is an elementary teacher, teaching children with diverse backgrounds all from low income families. Like many teachers nationwide he is being pressured by borough is principal at the local district to bring up the state and national task force of his students in reading and math. He decides to enroll in a three-day summer workshop offered by a well-respected national professional association so he could learn new ways to approach this problem of low test scores. Part of the requirement for attending the workshop is to bring a team of people from Federal Building. He convinces three of his fellow teachers to join him. During the first three hours of the workshop, team members are asked to identify major issues they are facing and attempting to raise test scores. Davids team members list items like 850% turn over instant during each academic year, second language problems, and a principal who gives them little, if any, tangible support for addressing the problems. The team is excited that they are finally in a workshop where their needs would be addressed. The facilitators thank each of the teams for their input, and in and out they are predetermined agenda, saying they would incorporate the issues identified that each of the teams. The afternoon constitutes a basic introduction to the academic problems of low test scores, material Davids team is already familiar with. Even though they found the afternoon session useless, they decide to come back the second day as their morning discussion has been stimulating. The second day is even worse. Not only on the problems they identified the work, but all of the examples used to illustrate how schools were able to raise their test scores were set in middle and upper class districts and require new resource. David and his colleagues did not bother to come back the third day. Although it appeared that the needs of individual learners and this workshop for going to be considered, those of David and his colleagues were not. Rather then be inched options being situated or anchored in the participants real-life context in the case of David Steen, schools located in poor neighborhoods they were given information that was either too general or so out of context that it was not worth their time or effort to continue to attend. For this workshop to have been useful to David and his team, illustrations or case examples from school and low common districts with high student turnover rates and English-language problems would have been more meaningful as would have sharing new ideas for no or low-cost instructional materials and techniques.
Scenario 3
In a gradual class and adult education one of the authors who delighted to find out that the Taiwanese student who rarely contribute to the clients discussion and written an outstanding paper on the assigned topic. The paper was so well written that the professor decided to read it to the class as an exemplar; she also hoped that by recognizing the student in this way, the student would have more confidence to participate in class discussions and activities. While she read the paper the student will now with her head in her hands, and barren; subsequent papers were not quite as outstanding, nor did her participation increased as the teacher had hoped. In this scenario the teacher is focused on the individual learner. Though well mention, ignoring the students hold true context impacted negatively on the students subsequent learning. For some Asian students, their culture has talked them that to be singled out from their peer group the other students is acutely embarrassing and jeopardizing their position in the group; to be singled out is a risk being marginalized. Not wanting to stand out from the group, the need to save face, and respect for authority, especially that of teachers, all mitigate against contributing to class discussion and activities as an individual. In a sense their learning style favors direct interaction with the written materials and nonpublic assessment of their work. Pratt, Kelly, and Wong (1998) have questioned whether we can in polls as a part of our practice of adult education our Westernized assumption of teaching and learning. More specifically, Pratt asserts that: Adult Education within any country is not simply a neutral body of knowledge and procedures there are significant cultural and ideological differences in how adulthood is defined which must be considered when exporting or importing educational practices and procedures. What we have hoped to make clear and the last section of the chapter is that paying attention to both the individual learner and the context of learning provides yet another way to gain a richer understanding of adults as learners. In considering our own practice, we might ask ourselves questions that incorporate both perspectives such as: how can I recognize in the learning process strengthens learners bring to the situation that had been culturally engendered for example, the importance of the group, of silence, of the oral tradition? As programs are being planned, what power relations among participants, teacher, and/or organizational personnel should I address? Can I, as a teacher, respond to both the individual needs of learners in my group as well as consider the contextual factors act as barriers or supports or learning? How can I use both the collective for example, being white, a woman, a man, a person of color and individual experiences of learning in my teaching? How do I, as a teacher, inadvertently reinforced the show actual assuring some learning, and what can I do to resist reinforcing the status quo? In responding to such questions, it is our hope that our practice as adult educators can be richer, more inclusive of differing perspectives, and more comprehensive and our actions. Although we strongly endorse both further study and incorporating in practice the integrative perspective on a belt learning, we recognize there are limitations to our acknowledge position. First, some might read into our stance that expanding research efforts in this way would mean ignoring scholarship and attention to the individual and conceptual frames. However, rather than curtailing work from either of these perspectives we suggest more effort be put into identifying and then focusing on questions that offer cause the most promising information fo our enhancing practice. For example, from the individual perspective what we are currently learning about the neurobiology of learning has the potential for greatly expanding knowledge about adults with learning disabilities, the importance of emotion in the learning process, and how biological changes in adulthood are linked to learning. Likewise, we still need more in-depth exploration of the interactive and structural dimensions of the conceptual perspective of learning, including such areas as reflective practice, and the influence of race, gender, class, and ethnicity on how and what adults learn. We acknowledge that the integration of the individual and conceptual frames into our everyday work roles is challenging at best and actively resisted by some. Raise the issue of power and knowledge construction or even questioning how our institutional norms, structure, and assumed ways of operating shapeup the up the learning transaction can be a threatening and disruptive undertaking. Embracing this frame involves not only changes in how we as individuals do our jobs, but also major realignments in the ways our formal institutions are organized and what is considered to be acceptable practice.

I need a business plan for an international business located in Guatemala exporting Guatemalan coffee to Japan specifically and international as well.

FOLLOW THIS EXACT TEMPLATE PLEASE:

International Business Plan Template

1. Executive Summary

Nature of the opportunity

Scope of the opportunity

Why this opportunity?

Why this country?

Financing requirement

Risk assessment

Return on investment

Request for action

2. Nature of business

Summary description

Corporate mission statement (if any)

Corporate history:

? Founders

? When established

? Key milestones

Core competencies:

? Product

? Process

? Technology

? Service

? Operations

? Other

3. Customer Profile

Characteristics of users:

? Age categories

? Occupations

? Income levels

? Other distinguishing features

Who makes the purchasing decision (if different from users)?

Spending patterns of buyers:

Place of product in spending

Disposable income

Factors influencing purchase:

? Price

? Quality

? Features

? Time to market

? Reliability of supply

? After-sales service

? Fads and trends

? Other

4. Current market

Total domestic market for product or service:

? By value

? By volume

? Current and projected trends

? Geographical distribution

Company?s share of domestic market:

? By value

? As a percentage

? Current trends

Company?s foreign markets (if any):

? By value

? By country

? Current trends

5. Description of product or service

What is the need it fills?

Technical description

Distinguishing features differentiating product or service from its competition.

Expected life cycle of current offering:

Can it become obsolete or is overtaken by replacement offerings?

Renewal strategy

? Quality improvements

? Enhanced features

? Replacement offerings

6. Marketing Strategy

Significant trends in the marketplace

? Demographic and social changes

? Macroeconomic factors

? Technological developments

? Regulatory changes

Emerging opportunities for the company

Marketing objectives:

By volume

By market share

By characteristics of target market

Marketplace positioning

Pricing strategy

7. Sales activities

Available resources:

? Internal sales staff

? External sales force (e.g. agents, distributors)

? Sales budget

Sales tactics:

? Promotional techniques

? Special offers

? Unique features of sales approach

Results

8. Intellectual property

Proprietary technologies embedded in the product or service

Proprietary production processes

Patents held

Trademarks, trade names, copyrights, etc.

R&D capabilities

Current R&D activities

R&D objectives

9. Operations

Plant or premises:

? Size

? Location

? Features

? Ownership

? Applicable leases

Equipment:

? Description

? Age

? Applicable leases

Capacity:

? Maximum capacity

? Current utilization

Cost of overheads:

? Materials

? Labor

? Administration

? Rents, leases and utilities

? Marketing and sales

? Other

Inventory:

? Current levels (by number)

? Estimated value

10. Human resources

Number of employees

Functional areas:

? Number in each area

? Skill requirements by area

Educational levels

Gaps in available skills

Recruitment and training strategy

11. Supplier network

Key inputs required:

? By type

? By value

Current suppliers:

? Name

? Location (domestic or foreign)

? Inputs supplied

? Value of orders

Purchasing strategy:

? Supplier qualification

? Method of ordering

? Special techniques (e.g. Just-in-Time ordering)

? Controls

12. Physical distribution

Distribution requirements:

? Nature of product or service

? Order processing

? Handling and shipping techniques used

? Special requirements

Internal capabilities:

? Storage and warehousing

? Preparation and handling

? Shipping

External service suppliers:

? Shipping and handling

? Carriers

? Insurance

? Name of supplier

? Average annual business volume

13. Financial performance: past five years

Year

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Gross sales

Cost of goods

Gross profit

Cost of sales

Administration

Pre-tax profit

Taxes

After-tax profit

Explanations

14. Financial performance: five-year projection

Year

Current

+1

+2

+3

+4

Gross sales

Cost of goods

Gross profit

Cost of sales

Administration

Pre-tax profit

Taxes

After-tax profit

Assumptions

15. Financial requirements of existing business

Scenario

Cash flow projection

Case requirement

High

Medium

Low

Key Assumptions

16. Possible financing sources

Operations

Commercial lenders

Investors

Government sources

Other situations

17. Proposed application of funds

R&D

Capacity expansion

Marketing initiatives

Training

18. Ownership and structure

Share structure and owners

Senior management

Directors

19. Risk Analysis

Currency

? Hedging

? Forward contracts

? Transfer pricing

? Asset valuation

Country

? Expropriation

? Discriminatory treatment

? Repatriation funds

? Political environment

Company

? Credit check

? Dispute mechanisms

? Performance bonds

Project management

? Performance bonds

? Reporting systems

? Decision-making mechanisms

Insurance

? EDC

? Private

20. Conclusion and recommendations

21. Appendices: Additional supporting information (prepare list)

Management biographies

Product literature

Letters of reference, awards

Patents

Major contracts

Asset valuations

Descriptions of assets

Relevant studies

Financial data:

? Cash flow projection

? Profit and loss statement

? Balance sheet

? Auditor?s report

Antigua Guatemala Coffee Info
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------





Tucked away in a valley and nestled between three volcanoes, lies beautiful Antigua, Guatemala; it is in this climatically diverse region that you will find the local farmers growing some of the world?s finest coffee. This region is perfect for cultivating coffee; with ample rainfall, elevations reaching 4,600 feet, and a constant humidity of 65%, it makes absolute sense for coffee to be the number one industry in Guatemala.

This highly rated and well-known gourmet coffee is light-medium roasted to brew into full-bodied coffee with unique smoky and chocolaty undertones. Richly complex and well-balanced, this gourmet coffee from Guatemala has hints of spice in the finish that will please the senses.





25 lbs. Guatemala Antigua Fresh Roasted Coffee Beans

Fresh Roasted Coffee Beans
Guatemala Antigua
________________________________________
Specifics:
? Name: AGAIG
? Origin: Guatemala
? Region: Antigua
? Altitude: 1200-2000
? Processing Method: Washed
? Drying Method: European Prep
Cupping Notes:
Spices,citrus,toasted nuts.
About this Coffee:
Valley Coffee Roasters and Pete have been custom roasting for As Green As It Gets for a few years now. It just seemed funny for us to keep buying our Guatemalan coffee from anyplace else. On August 11 2011 I called AGAIG and now we are buying our Antigua direct from the growers! This is just one of a few coffees I hope to buy direct like this. Remember Direct Trade is getting all of the money back to the growers and IMHO is far better than any Fair Trade Certified coffee.
________________________________________
From As Green As It Gets Site
Our farmers are exporting 21 tons of coffee! This export represents the combined efforts of over 300 people from 64 farming families. From humble beginnings, we have grown from 800 lbs to 42.000 lbs a year, and we're still growing!. Their capital investments continue to grow.
This certified scale weighs legal export weight.

This sewing machine seals each bag in seconds compared to the twenty minutes it takes to sew a bag by hand.

Our farmers have their own export license, export plantation code, FDA registration, tax-payer id number, certified receipts, a legal business entity with board of directors, registered land titles, and a host of legal paperwork to make them bonafide producers and exporters. That?s exciting, but not as exciting as #24378.
This year, the farmers are exporting as Plantation #24378.

That number indicates that the government of Guatemala has recognized them as legal, registered, independent producers and exporters of coffee.

Guatemala History
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


The golden age and decline of the Maya empire

In 1542, 32 years after Columbus had discovered America, under Pedro de Alvarado the Spanish invaded the region, which now is Guatemala. At this time this region was highly populated by the descendants of the Maya, who, in the years 300 until 900 AD, had known a cultural golden age, in which they had developed a very precise script of words and pictures as well as mathematical and astronomical knowledge. Reasons for the decline of the Maya empire have not been resolved clearly until now. In the opinion of a lot of scientists, an ecological catastrophe destroyed the former flourishing Mayan metropolises that afterwards were overgrown by the rain forest. Therefore, at the time of the Spanish invasion, the Mayan descendants lived in very simple circumstances, pursued agriculture and were in close contact to nature.


"Discovery" of America

By the invasion of the Spanish, the living standards of the Mayas got worse dramatically. They were driven out or forced to work; they suffered from mistreatment, hunger and diseases brought in from Europe. Within a very short time the population of 800,000 reduced to approximately 100,000.


Independence of Guatemala

At the end of the 18th century, resistance was formed by the country exploited by the Spanish Crown which led to independence of Guatemala in 1821. After independence, huge coffee and banana plantations were formed that were led by domestic big landowners and increasingly by foreign companies, e.g. the "United Fruit Company". Politically the country was unstable and subject to dictatorial regimes. The dictatorship of Jorge ?bico (1933 - 1944) can be seen as the climax of the ordinary people's suffering. During this dictatorship all of Guatemala turned into a "big private madhouse", as quoted by a Times correspondent at the time. The Ind?genas, as the Mayan descendants are called today, were deprived of all their rights and tortures and shootings reached alarming and unbearable proportions. In an uprising of the public population, government was removed and nine years of democracy followed.

Under President Juan Jos? Ar?valo, who was elected in 1945, general electoral law was ratified, trade unions were legalized and literacy programmes were carried out. But when Jacobo Arbenz, his successor, wanted to carry out a land reform in which the Guatemalan plantations as well as the United Fruit Company were planned to be expropriated, the government was overthrown with financial help of the US and the support of the CIA in 1954.


Acts of terror and troops of death

During the following decades and with changing governments, the country remained in the hands of the powerful elite that was formed by big landowners, the army and increasingly industrialists. The oppression of a large part of the population was carried on with by extended states of emergency, acts of terror and troops of death.


Policy of the burned ground

At the end of the 70s, the guerrillas began to recruit again after several years of peace. President Romeo Lucas Garc?a, holding office at the beginning of the 80s, tried to fight them by introducing his "policy of the burned ground", which meant destroying whole villages and the killing of a lot of people, mostly of the indigenous population. Garcia?s successor, the religious fanatic Rios Montt, who became president in 1982, was pursuing the same politics more radically. During the 17 months of Rios Montt's dictatorship in Guatemala, the Guatemalan population suffered from the most horrible crimes of the civil war, which lasted more than 36 years: 440 villages were razed to the ground, 50,000 people "disappeared" and more than 100,000 people were killed. Those responsible have not been called to account yet and Rios Montt had immunity as president of the Congress until 2003.



On the way to democracy

Since 1986 Guatemala has been governed by civil presidents, but it wasn't until 1993, when the human rights representative of the government, Ramiro de Le?n Carpio, was called into office as new president, that hope arose on a process of establishing a real democracy. As prisoner between the interests of the army and the economy, he did not achieve any far-reaching reforms either. In 1996 Alvaro Arz? became president. His biggest achievement was the successful conclusion of the peace negotiations, which lasted nearly 10 years and the signing of the final peace contract on 29 December 1996 that put an end to the 36 years of civil war.


The peace contract of 1996

After euphoria, disillusion followed quickly. Until today, economic and political structures remain unchanged and the realisation of a lot of contract issues still are slowed down. In only a few sectors progress had been made, like the reform in the justice system. For a while long prison sentences against members of the army, who were made responsible for the murder of bishop Gerardi four years ago, in the last year, were considered as big results against the general exemptions from punishment. Two days before he was killed, Bishop Gerardi had presented the human rights report on the crimes committed by the army during the civil war. In October 2002, the sentence mentioned above was annulled. Now, after another appeal against this verdict by the defence, this case lies in the responsibility of the constitutional court.

Unfortunately, the death of Bishop Gerardi is not an exception: It is still very dangerous in Guatemala to fight for human rights and to support coming to terms with the dark past of the country. Everyday, activists and offices of human rights organisations as well as a lot of journalists are threatened with death, are attacked and killed in many cases. Obviously, still there are a lot of people (especially in higher ranking positions in the government and army) that are in full consciousness of their guilt and responsibility during the period of the armed conflict and therefore fear any solving of these crimes.

We hope that the peace process, which is stagnating so obviously and only can be seen as a retrograde step in some sectors, will be put on the right track and manifestation of the peace expected will be realised as soon as possible during the following years.
A Short History of Guatemala

Early Mayan civilization and culture began to develop around 2000 B.C., all throughout the territory that we currently know as southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador and western Honduras. The first period of Mayan civilization is referred to as the Pre-classic period and it occurred at the same time as the Golden Age of Greece and the conquests of Alexander the Great, lasting until around 250 A.D. The Classic period (following the pre-classic), was contemporary to the fall of the Roman Empire, and covers the years from 250 A.D. to 900 A.D. Following the classic period is the Post classic period from 900 A.D. up until the Spanish conquest of Guatemala in 1524.
The Maya were considered one of the most developed human cultures of their time. They established trade routes throughout the area mentioned above, and also traded with other people in surrounding areas, e.g. with Teotihuacan. The most powerful Mayan cities during the height of Mayan civilization were Tikal, Calakmul, Caracol, Uaxact?n, Yaxh?, Chichen Itz?, El Mirador, Nakbe, Cop?n, Palenque, Yaxchil?n, and Kaminaljuy?. These cities were commercial and spiritual centers. They traded jade, obsidian, quetzal feathers and liquidambar resin from the highlands, seashells, fish and salt from the coast, and cacao, cotton, and macaw feathers from the lowlands. Each city was ruled by a k'ul ajaw, a king of god status, who ruled a united secular and religious realm.

Ball game court in front of the Temple I in Tikal.
Centers of the ancient cities were characterized by plazas, temple pyramids, and ball courts, all designed to model the landscapes surrounding the cities. Pyramids were symbols of the mountains and home to the gods. Ball game courts were symbols for the valleys between the mountains and were considered the entrances to the underworld. The wide central plazas symbolized the surfaces of lakes, which were thought to be the surface of the underworld. Celebrations and sacrificial ceremonies were held on the stage of this sacred landscape (Freidel et al. 1993).
All of the ruins which can be seen today survived under the thick cover of the rainforest for centuries before being uncovered. Today they help us recreate the history of the ancient Maya, together with the arts and crafts and written testimonies carved in stone, written on paper and on pottery. The Maya used the most complex writing system of all American cultures up to their time. They also used an advanced calendar based on exact astronomic observations. Mayan mathematics included the concept of zero and agriculture was dominated by corn, which is still the main base of the Guatemalan diet today.

Itzamn? - Maya god of creation, drawing from Dresden Codex, 1500 A.D. (Post-classic Period).
The late Classic period was characterized by many autonomous city centers that were often in conflict with each other, trying to divide up political territories. The mystery surrounding the collapse of the major Mayan sites in the 9th century continues today. One possible theory is the idea that the uncontrolled exploitation of resources by the Maya (slash and burn agriculture for example), long dry seasons, overpopulation, illnesses, wars, invasions and obstruction of trade routes, depleted the resources needed to support such a large population and caused the civilization to fold upon itself. Either way, what is known is that the main centers of the Classic Period were abandoned and the populations diminished at the end of this period and later on, in the Post classic period, only smaller towns were known to exist around lake Pet?n Itz?. During the late Post Classic period the central towns were Tayasal, at lake Pet?n Itz?, and Topoxt?, at lake Yaxh?.
The long history of the Mayans ruling the majority of Mesoamerica ended with Spain's conquest of their lands. Spain entered to find new lands and resources to exploit and with their conquest they reduced Mayans to smaller populations and established their own cities on top of the Mayan ruins. Thus began three centuries of exploitation by the Spanish of the Mayan people, called the Colonial era, from 1524 to 1821. In 1524 Pedro de Alvarado began the conquest of the geographical area which is now known as part of Guatemala. He founded the first Spanish capital over the Mayan site of Iximch?, the former capital of the Cakchiquel Kingdom. From then on Spain continued to conquer Mayan population centers and defeated the last significant Mayan population in 1697 in Tayasal, capital of the Itzaes of Pet?n. In one of Alvarado's battles Tec?n Um?n was raised to national hero status for his valiant fight against his Spanish intruders.
The name Guatemala was derived from "Quauhtemallan", which means 'place of abundant flowers' or from "Guauthemallan", which means 'place of trees' in the Aztec Nahuatl language. This name was given by the Tlaxcaltecas who came with Pedro de Alvarado to conquer this land. During the colonial time the capital of Guatemala changed location many times due to natural disasters. The capital "Guatemala de la Asunci?n", as it is today, was not named until 1776 after a severe earthquake which destroyed much of the previous capital, the city which is now Antigua Guatemala. During this time trading coalitions were established with Europe and the Catholic Church's influence was solidified throughout the whole country. Even though the Catholic Church tried to impose its beliefs on Mayans, some Maya codices and chronicles, with historical and religious information, were documented, preserved and even translated into Spanish by members of the very same Catholic Church. These members of the church had befriended certain Mayan leaders and were not comfortable forcing their religion upon the Mayans. In the 19th century various indigenous rebellions took place at different points in the country. Out of these rebellions rose another indigenous hero: Atanasio Tzul. He was made famous for leading a rebellion in the Quich? province of Totonicap?n in 1820.


Guatemala's flag and the emblem of liberty in 1821.
In 1821 the Modern Period began with the independence of Guatemala from Spain. A political union of all the countries from Central America took place from 1823 to 1839, known as Central American Federation. The central Government of it was situated in Guatemala, but finally all countries split like we know them today: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. No national currency was declared until 1924. Then the "Quetzal" was introduced, owing its name to the national bird.
Since pre-colonial times the Mayans have always used the slash-and-burn agriculture and it is still the most common method for cultivation of corn, the base of the Guatemalan diet. During and after the Colonial period, Guatemala exported products which had been originally processed by the Mayan people, such as cacao and Spanish Red, which is a dye extracted from cochineal insects. At the end of the 19th century numerous German immigrants came to Guatemala and planted large areas with coffee for exportation. This is how coffee "fincas" or farms originated and today they are still producing some of the finest coffees in the world. The 20th century began with strong investments from the United Fruit Company to establish banana plantations in Guatemala. The company signed a contract with then president Estrada Cabrera to grow and trade bananas, and thus began a decade of strong influences of the banana trade in Guatemalan power politics.
In 1960 a civil war began that lasted for 36 years, taking the life of thousands of Guatemalans, and not officially concluding until the signing of Peace Accords between the government and guerilla forces in 1996. Since the Peace Agreements were signed, their implementation has been given close attention by the international community while the national government has swayed from strong intentions to implement agreements in the accords to a seemingly disinterested stand on the matter. In the face of these fluctuations the country has a long way to go to achieve the goals laid out in this important document.

Guatemala's population is currently at around 13 million people, according to the national census. Guatemala is a multicultural country: 23 Mayan ethnic groups, "ladinos" (a mix of Mayan and Spaniards), and minor groups, which are mainly the Xinca and the Gar?funa. The Mayan population is around 60% of this number. They are settled mainly in the western highlands and in central Guatemala. Rural areas of Guatemala are a stark contrast to the urban centers. Most remote rural villages do not have paved roads, electricity or running water, and education is hard to access. The intensive use of the land in rural areas reflects the fact that agricultural production is still the main economic activity for the majority of the country's population. Some of the most prominent export products produced in Guatemala are: Cardamom, coffee, sugar cane, bananas, flowers and non-traditional goods like macadamia nuts and typical textiles and souvenirs. A significant amount of Guatemala's economy relies on tourism as the country's wildly diverse attractions, both natural and cultural, provide a wealth of attractions for visitors to the country.
One of the traditions in Guatemala which has endured centuries is that of the local markets. Markets are both trading centers and gathering sites and are generally operational only a couple of days each week, when people from a whole region will come to a town center to offer their wares and purchase basic necessity goods for their families. At the major markets one can observe local products and typical clothes from different areas and ethnic groups being bought and sold, since people from numerous small towns gather in the main markets at the same time.

You are to write a 2-page paper. Read the article below. State the question first and then continue to answer. Do Not Use Outside Sources.

Question
1.Were you surprised by any of the findings reported by Taylor? Specifically, were the topics of research and the types of research he reported?
2.What you would have expected in a 10-year survey of research in our field (Adult Education)?

ADULT EDUCATION QUARTERLY FROM 1989 TO 1999: Taylor

Academic publications represent the knowledge base of a given discipline and reflect the disciplines history, trends, research norms, and social structures of communication among scholars. By analyzing the publication activity of a given journal, much can be learned about a field of study (see Foley, Keener, &Branch, 1994; Nietupski, Hamre-Nietupski, Curtin, & Shrikanth, 1997; Ongel & Smith, 1994). This practice of analyzing journals has also been a custom of scholarly publications in the field of adult education, particularly with Adult Education Quarterly (AEQ), the preeminent journal in the field as judged by the professorate (Rachal & Sargent, 1995). During the past 30 years, there have been numerous analyses looking for publication patterns in length of articles, citations, subject and methodology, and the journals receptivity to feminist and international issues, to mention a few (see Dickinson & Rusnell, 1971; Hayes, 1992; Kim, 1991; Long & Agyekum, 1974). However, the decade of the 1990s has yet to be explored. In addition, most content analyses of scholarly journals, as well as those of AEQ, have involved only published articles because rejected manuscripts are difficult to access. Published articles are a product of an extensive, peer-review process that is often so thorough that only a small percentage of manuscripts, especially in the social science fields, are published (see Beyer, 1978; Jauch &Wall, 1989; Schwier, 1994). For example, Henson (1997) reported from a survey of editors of educational, scholarly journals, that more than one fifth have an acceptance rate of less than 10% and that almost 40% have an acceptance rate of less than 30%. Although
rejected submissions are found unsuitable for publication for a variety of concerns (see Northridge & Susser, 1994; Zaruba, Toma, & Stark, 1996), most papers rejected by prestigious journals will still find print, if their authors are persistent, through less-known, perhaps un-refereed outlets (Biggs, 1990, p. 161). This thorough publication process is also found in AEQ, which from 1989 to 1993 had an average acceptance rate around 16%. To put this in more concrete terms, of the 386 manuscripts that were submitted during this time, only 58 were accepted (Taylor, 1993). It is these 58 articles that become, along with other adult education publications, representative of the scholarly body of knowledge of the discipline. However, what do the unpublished manuscripts (more than 80%) say about the discipline? By looking at all submissions, what research trends would be revealed about the field? Rejected manuscripts represent an unexamined perspective about the field of adult education. Although at times uninformed, poorly written and researched, this perspective is important enough for adult educators to give the time and energy to write about and has a good opportunity of being published in some other outlet in the field. Recently, access was gained to all submissions over the past decade to AEQ. By conducting an analysis of these submissions, a more accurate picture could be discerned about the recent trends of the adult education field over the past decade.
Therefore, the intent of this study is twofold: to conduct a comprehensive analysis of AEQ from 1989 to 1999 and to explore the significance of a content analysis including both accepted and rejected submissions to a scholarly journal. It is hoped that this study will tell us more about the construction of knowledge in the field based on not only what has been published but also what has been accepted for publication in AEQ. In addition, it will offer a long overdue analysis of AEQ publication activity for the past 10 years, with a particular focus on general trends of the field.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
There are several important functions of content analysis of scholarly journals. First, an analysis of the research reported in a journal provides empirical insight into the areas of research deemed relevant and worthy of publication (Buboltz, Miller,&Williams, 1999, p. 496). In addition, by determining what is significant to a particular discipline by the types of articles published, it helps identify neglected areas of research as well as brings to light implicit values that frame the conceptualization of the field (Ongel&Smith, 1994). Second, content analyses help to categorize scholarly publications. Through the development of operational definitions, greater clarity and communication are promoted among researchers in the field. Third, an analysis offers insight into a journals preferences, providing future
researchers a better understanding about the suitability, or lack of suitability, of a manuscript they are considering for submission (Buboltz et al., 1999). Fourth, a content analysis can be used to probe for the extent of balance or possible publication bias concerning gender and other characteristics (Hernon, Smith, & Croxen, 1993, p. 304). It can act as a mirror for the editors of the journal, providing them an opportunity to reflect on the consistency of their publication decisions in relationship to the journals mission statement and policies. Types of content analyses generally involve two approaches: one that is comprehensive and the other thematic (Rachal & Sargent, 1995). Comprehensive analysis classifies articles into a wide variety of different categories (e.g., gender of author,
research design, subject). Examples of comprehensive analysis include Dickinson and Rusnells (1971) and Long and Agyekums (1974) analyses of AEQ. Thematic analysis focuses on the degree of inclusion of different articles of a particular theme. Examples of thematic analyses include Hayes (1992) research that studied the impact of feminist research and Fisher and Martins (1987) research on adult literacy in AEQ. Most content analyses, as previously mentioned, include only acceptances, because few investigators have access to manuscripts submitted for publication (Hernon et al., 1993, p. 305). Only two studies, both of the College and Research Libraries journal, were identified that included all submissions in a content analysis of a journal. One focused on the readability (measured by formulas) of submissions, where it found rejected manuscripts to have a significantly higher readability than those accepted (Metoryer-Duran, 1993). The second study, by Hernon et al. (1993), reviewed all submissions as well as all peer-reviewer comments over a decade of publication activity (1980 to 1991). Most significant to this study was the
percentage of rejected manuscripts that were eventually published by other outlets. More than 40% of the rejections were ultimately published (Hernon et al., 1993, p. 314). To set the context for this study, it is important to look at previous content analyses of AEQ over the past 30 years. Eight studies were identified, with the earlier studies taking a comprehensive approach identifying trends of the field and the more recent studies offering a thematic analysis. Beginning with the earliest study, Dickinson and Rusnell (1971) conducted a review of AEQ from 1964 to 1973 and
found trends of an increase in publication activity by university faculty, longer articles and larger numbers of citations, an emphasis on research-based articles with lesser emphasis on program descriptions and statements of personal beliefs or experiences (p. 184). In response, Long and Agyekum (1974) conducted a review from 1964 to 1973 with the intent to improve on the previous study, by exploring the reasons behind the changes in publication activities and by lessening the effect of multiple editorships by shortening the timeperiod of investigation. Their findings
were similar, revealing an increase in research design sophistication, an increase in descriptive research, a small percentage of research based on doctoral dissertations, an increase in article length, and some relationship between the editor and institutional affiliation of contributors (Long & Agyekum, 1974, p. 114). During roughly the same time period, Boshier and Pickard (1979) looked at citation patterns to demonstrate that the field of adult education has its own unique body of knowledge as evidenced by the increasing reliance of scholars on theories and concepts developed within the field. Along with determining that researchers had a strong tendency to cite literature unique to the field, they found a predominance of participation research and that AEQ was the major publication for dissemination of research in the field.
The number of studies in AEQ with a more thematic analysis increased during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Fisher and Martin (1987) looked at AEQ along with other adult education journals from 1976 to 1986 for research involving adult literacy, the extent to which the journals tested or generated theory, and what aspects of adult literacy received the greatest attention. Even though they did not separate their findings according to each journal, the combined findings seem to support a trend of adult education research in general, that of an emphasis on participation variables, with limited attention to research design and theory generation or testing about adult literacy. Kim (1991) sought to find out if AEQ(1986 to 1990)was truly a forum for facilitating dialogue, recognition, and appreciation of differences and similarities among the peoples of the world, their views and perspective, in order to promote
awareness (p. 160). She concluded that there was a predominance of quantitative research, dominated by crude behaviorism that neglects or trivializes the influence . . . of human subjectivity (p. 165); that most articles focused on instructional materials and methods, program planning, and adult learning; and that few studies dealt with adult education as a field of study, philosophy, or an international perspective.
Along a similar vein, Hayes (1992) looked for inclusiveness trends in topics concerning women and gender differences in British and American adult education journals over a 23-year period. She found the American journals to have a greater proportion of articles on women and gender in the early periods but, following the period from 1976 to 1980, the British journals reflected higher percentages. Furthermore, the content analysis revealed that general research studies frequently do not treat gender as significant, by both integrating it into data analysis and discussing
gender-related differences (Hayes, 1992, p. 136).Working with this same data from the 1992 study, Hayes (1994) sought to clarify the dominant perspectives of women in adult education publications. The major conclusions were the disturbing nature of a deficit-oriented perspective of women and education, the lack of attention to diversity in womens experiences, and the lack of attention to how gender as a socially and culturally defined construct has influenced educational programs and the learning experiences of women (Hayes, 1994, p. 217). The two most recent studies of AEQ used the journal to explore the publication productivity of adult education institutions and of graduate students. Rachal and Sargent (1995), using publication productivity in AEQ and other leading journals in
the field from 1983 to 1992 as an indicator of program quality, identified the foremost adult education institutions in North America as well as determined the most important journals for adult education research. AEQ was almost universally cited by the professors as one of the top journals (Rachal & Sargent, 1995, p. 66). Most significant to this review was the predominance of single-author publications (more than 76%) as well as the high number of publications from non-education institutions. Finally, Blunt and Lee (1994) attempted to shed some light on aspects
of knowledge production and dissemination processes in graduate adult education programs (p. 125). The findings revealed that graduate students as single authors and coauthors contributed more than 128 published articles to AEQ (1969 to 1988), representing 46% of all articles published during that time period. Looking back at all the studies of AEQ methodologically, the quality of these studies has evolved, with most reflecting the degree of current research sophistication in its publication time period. Earlier studies demonstrate little control for researcher bias and few details on how the articles were analyzed, whereas some later studies use intricate instruments, multiple judges for article analysis, and a greater number of journals and articles. However, none of the studies ever had access to or included in their analysis articles that were rejected for publication. Therefore, as the journal moves into the new millennium it becomes important not only to complete a comprehensive analysis of the remaining decade but also to expand how content analyses have traditionally been conducted.

METHOD
The methodology of this study was a simple, quantitative, content analysis similar to previous studies of AEQ (Hayes, 1992; Long& Agyekum, 1974). It builds on an analysis of all submissions to AEQ that the author began in 1993 while an editorial assistant with the journal at the University of Georgia. Since that time, the editorship moved to the University of Nebraska and Michigan State University. The former editors were contacted, and permission was arranged to have all the submissions shipped to Penn State, Harrisburg. A grant supporting this research was
secured from the university to pay for research assistants and shipping expenses. A total of 752 submissions from 1989 to 1993 were included in the analysis of this study, except for a gap of missing submissions from January 1993 to June 1993. In addition, all manuscripts designated as out of scope (10.5%) were eliminated from the study because most of these submissions had been returned to the author. Recognizing the ethical concerns about reviewing all submissions to the journal, a thorough procedure was established that not only promoted rigor in the analysis of the data but also helped maintain the anonymity of the author(s) of each submission. Most of these procedures were taken from the few other studies that had access to all submissions (e.g., Hernon et al., 1993; Metoryer-Duran, 1993). First, to lessen researcher bias, two additional judges, both doctoral students in adult education, tested the accuracy of the categories (provided below), resulting in an interrelate reliability ranging from 75% to 90%. Second, each manuscript was separated from its corresponding file and coded for all the various categories in a logbook. In the coding process, nothing was recorded in the logbook that referred to the identity of the author(s). Third, following the analysis of each manuscript, the authors name was blacked out. Once the initial analysis was completed, two research assistants coded into separate logbooks each submission except for the categories that required the author names (gender of author and number of authors). This process helped ensure that no submissions were referred to by author names. At the completion of the analysis, the researcher and the assistants met to discuss the coding of each manuscript. Most disagreements of coding were resolved by a
majority, although at times the manuscript was reviewed again by the group if there was strong disagreement. Once the coding was confirmed, the data were inputted into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for two analyses: One gave the percentage of submissions per year of each category, and the other analysis gave two different acceptance rates, the acceptance rate across each category (identifying the percentage of acceptances in relationship to all acceptances) and the rate within eah category (identifying the percentage of acceptances in relationship to submissions in each category). The categories used for coding were similar to previous studies (Long, 1983; Long& Agyekum, 1974) to promote reliability when discussing trends. They are described below. 1. The year of the article was determined by its date of submission. 2. The gender of the author was categorized as male(s), female(s), or male and female coauthor, based on the first name of the author. 3. Single and multiple authorship were categorized single or multiple by simply counting the number of authors listed on the manuscripts. 4. The profession of authorship was categorized as academic, nonacademic, student, or any combination (mixed) of those classifications. It was determined by examining the titles provided by the author(s). An academic title (e.g., core instructor, assistant) had to be provided along with an institution for the submission to be coded academic. If
nothing was provided, it was coded nonacademic. An article was coded student only if it was specifically noted (e.g., graduate student, doctoral candidate) on the submission. 5. Geographic region was determined by the address of the first author. The various countries were grouped according to their like geographic region. The geographic regions
were Africa, Asia, Australia/New Zealand, Canada, Europe, the Middle East, South America, and the United States. The number of submissions determined the variation between continents and countries. 6. Type referred to the articles research approach and was categorized as one of the following: forum, historical, quantitative, qualitative, or theoretical formulation. Multiple- method studies were not identified as a separate category because the number was too small, and therefore they were coded based on the method that was predominantly relied on in reporting the findings. Also, theoretical types consisted of conceptual manuscripts that did not have a definitive methodology.
7. Subject referred to the articles general topic and was categorized as adult development, adult learning, adult education as a movement, evaluation/testing, gender and ethnic issues, literacy, program development, philosophy, participation, research methods, teaching and curriculum, or training/continuing professional education (CPE).
It is important to note that an analysis of institutional rankings of the research publication productivity of adult education programs (e.g., Rachal & Sargent, 1995) was not included because of the potential for compromising author confidentiality and because of the small size of many adult education programs in North America.

Limitations
Before revealing the findings, it is important to discuss some limitations of this study. First, this analysis is post-dictive instead of predictive. It is an attempt to look back at the publication activity of AEQ over the past 10 years, and therefore a discussion concerning inferences of future publication practices are limited. Second, this content analysis involves only one scholarly journal located in a discipline of which there are many publications. Also, it has predominantly been a conduit of research for adult education faculty in North America. Therefore, when generalizing trends of research, this factor has to be a part of the analysis. Third, and most significant,
because this study reviewed all submissions, it could easily be assumed that much insight into the biases of the editors of the journal would be gained. However, caution needs to be taken when making assumptions in this direction, particularly considering this is a comprehensive not a thematic analysis. Also, there are a variety of reasons for a submission to be rejected, such as a lack of contribution to the field, weak rationale, poorly defined purpose, and flawed methodology, just to mention a few (e.g., Coelho & La Forge, 2000; Hernon et al., 1993; Northridge & Susser, 1994; Wolff, 1970). Without including all the information in the analysis (e.g., reviewer comments, editor letters), inferences about biases of the journal are problematic.

FINDINGS
The findings focus on two aspects of the analysis of all submissions to AEQ. First, the focus is on trends over the past decade based on all submissions. Second, the focus is on what has been accepted by the journal in relationship to what has been submitted, in hopes of revealing a more accurate perspective of the publication pattern of AEQ.

Trends
To understand the trends over the past 10 years, Table 1 is organized with each category listed in the far-left column followed by the percentage of submissions for each year beginning with 1989 and ending in 1999. The final two columns reflect the total number of submissions for that category and the average percentage for that time period. For example, beginning with gender of author the trends of the field, based on the mean percentage of submissions to AEQ from 1989 to 1999, indicate that men (M = 44.9) still dominate, followed by women (M = 35.7) and shared male and female authorship (M = 19.4). However, looking historically the trend seems to be shifting toward an increase of submissions by women. In 1989 they represented 28.0% of all submissions and in 1999 they submitted more than 36.4% of submissions. In contrast, submissions by men have shifted from a high of 58.1% in 1989 to a percentage slightly less than that of submissions by women in 1999. In addition, for 4 years during the decade, women surpassed their male counterparts in percentage of submissions. Men and women publishing together has also increased, but the pattern has been somewhat inconsistent throughout the decade. Other factors explored were the percentages of single and multiple authorship and profession of the author(s). Single authorship submission still dominates the field, although there has been a small, inconsistent decline, from 69.9% in 1989 to 56.8% in 1999, with an obvious and equal increase in multiple authorship. Changes have also been seen in the profession of the authors who submit to AEQ. Even though academics, like single authorship, still dominate the number of submissions,
they experienced a small decline, from 72.0% in 1989 to 68.2% in 1999. In contrast to the academic submissions, there has been a significant increase of submissions by nonacademics, almost doubling from 11.8% in 1989 to more than 20% in 1999. Joint submissions by mixed professions and by students have been fairly marginal over the past decade, with a pattern that is too inconsistent to determine any plausible trend. With regard to the geographic region from where the submission originated, a preponderance of articles over the past decade continues to come from the United States (M = 75.3). The low rate of international submissions is even more pronounced when Canada and the United States are combined, which together make up more than 84% of all submissions. Furthermore, during the same period, AEQ received only 33 manuscripts from non-Western countries, less than 5% of all submissions.
There have been several years during the decade when the journal received no submissions from Asia, Africa, South America, or the Middle East. Analyzing the type of research reveals that quantitative submissions have been
declining, from 45.2% in 1989 to 34.1% in 1999. The reverse is true for qualitative research, which shows a dramatic increase, from 8.6% to 34.1% respectively. On the other hand, theoretical pieces have remained fairly constant, reflecting about a third of all submissions. Also, there are few submissions reflecting historical research (M = 2.9) and literature reviews (M = 1.7), with some years reflecting no submissions in these categories. Finally, it is difficult to discern much about trends of forums because they are generally requested submissions by the editorship. Finally, looking at the total number of submissions for a particular subject of an article, adult learning (M= 29.9), participation (M= 10.6), and teaching/curriculum (M= 9.6) were the major topics of interest. However, when analyzed over a span of 10 years, thesubject of participation reflects a marked decline as a research interest, from 18.3% of submissions in 1989 to 2.3% in 1999. Subject areas that were not identified in previous reviews that reflect a growing interest include gender/diversity (M = 9.7) and training/CPE submissions (M = 5.7). Other subjects such as adult development, evaluation/testing, literacy, program development, philosophy, and research methods continued to remain fairly consistent in their rate of submission over the decade. Besides participation, only adult education as a movement reflected a marked decline in submissions.

Analyzing Acceptances: Across Categories and Within Categories
The second analysis looks at acceptances of each category in relationship to all acceptances and in relationship to all submissions (both acceptances and rejections) during 1989 to 1999. As seen in Table 2, the findings are organized with the following information for each category: total number of acceptances, acceptances
across categories (percentage in relationship to total number of acceptances), total number of submissions, and acceptances within each category (percentage in relationship to all submissions). For example, beginning with the category of gender, women had 44 manuscripts accepted over the past decade. Those acceptances reflect 27.7% (acceptances across categories) of all articles accepted (N= 159). It is this percentage, identifying just published and accepted articles, that previous content analyses have been limited to when analyzing AEQ. However, this study looks at the number of articles by women accepted in relationship to the total number submitted. For this same time period, women submitted 268 articles with an acceptance rate of 16.4% (within categories). It is the second analysis that allows a comparison with the overall mean acceptance rate of the journal, which during the past decade was 21.1% (noted at the bottom, right corner of Table 2). Using this mean acceptance rate as a standard, women fall below the average and men (M = 26.2) above.
These differences in acceptance rates (across and within categories) can also be seen in other categories. For example, acceptance rates (within categories) of both single and multiple authorship fall close to the average acceptance rate of the journal. However, when looking at only acceptances (across categories), single authorship
manuscripts reflect 67.9% of all articles published. Similarly, profession of the author reveals a high number of publications for academics (across categories). Although, when acceptances are analyzed in relationship to all submissions by academics, it reveals only a marginally higher than average acceptance rate (M= 23.4).

DISCUSSION
Over the past 10 years, much about the publication activity of AEQ has remained constant, while at the same time new trends have started to emerge, reflecting a possible change in research interests in the field of adult education. Also, identifying trends based on all submissions, instead of just what is published, enhances our understanding of the publication activity of a scholarly journal and the direction of a discipline. These issues frame the discussion section: trends and the significance of analyzing all submissions when looking at the publication activity of a scholarly journal.

Trends
This study finds much consistency with the previous analyses of AEQ, such that submissions of single authorship from men of academic profession, from the United States, conducting quantitative research about subjects of adult learning and participation, have dominated the submissions over the past decade. Despite the continuity with the past, there are several areas that are indicative of an emerging change in pattern of submissions, possibly foretelling new trends. The first significant sign of change is the growing submission rate by women, reflected in the latter part of the decade where the rate has begun to surpass the submission rate of men. This increase is consistent with other content analyses. For example, Metz (1989) found in a statistical profile of College and Research Libraries that a dramatic increase in representation of women among CRLs authors has been perhaps the most notable change in the journals recent history (p. 44). One possible explanation for this increase is that more women are entering
the professorate of adult education. This would also be consistent with the national figures on the increasing number of women earning doctorates (Fox, 1999;Willie & Williams, 1986) and the greater number of women becoming faculty in higher education (Glazer-Raymo, 1999). However, the increase in submissions is not resulting in an equivalent increase in publications. This discrepancy among women and men is consistent with other academic journals. Fox (1999) reported that although particular levels of gender difference vary by field, women are found to publish significantly fewer articles than men in chemistry, biochemistry, ecology, and psychology, as well as four social science fields (p. 450). More research is needed in this area to understand why women are publishing less than men. In contrast to the change found in the gender, two trends, that of profession of author and geographic region, continue to remain constant in relationship to previous analyses (Blunt & Lee, 1994; Kim, 1991) of AEQ. Academic submissions continue to dominate, even though during some years there has been a significant increase in submissions by nonacademics and students in the field. One explanation for this somewhat erratic pattern is the inherent limitation of attempting to code the profession of the author based on the title noted on the manuscript. Many academics and nonacademics could have more than one title, particularly those that hold joint positions. Also, students may not publish their research until they have acquired nonacademic or faculty positions, further complicating the analysis. The geographic origin of submission also continues to be consistent with previous
analyses such that there are a dismal number of international submissions to AEQ, particularly from non-Western countries (Kim, 1991). Clearly, part of the problem is that many of these authors lack the necessary fiscal resources for sophisticated research, experience language barriers and poor working conditions, and have inadequate library facilities that cannot afford subscriptions to AEQ. When looking at the type of submissions, two significant trends need to be discussed. One is an increase in qualitative submissions, particularly in the latter part of the decade. A probable explanation is that education programs and journals in general have become increasingly receptive to this form of research, reflected in greater publications and less debate about its validity as a research method (see Elmore & Woehilke, 1998; Gilner, 1994; Zaruba et al., 1996). A second explanation, although requiring further analysis, is that the increase in qualitative research relates to the increase in submissions by women. Qualitative research in contrast to quantitative places an emphasis on the subjective and descriptive nature of the phenomenon
under study. This research perspective has been found by many women to be more meaningful and informative to their work (Miller & Treitel, 1991). In contrast to the increase of qualitative submissions, there continues to be a lack
of historical research submitted to AEQ. Historical research began to emerge in greater numbers in the 1970s (Dickinson & Rusnell, 1971; Long & Agyekum, 1974), although, as an area of interest, it has never really taken off among those who submit articles to AEQ. This pattern seems consistent with an earlier study by Brookfield (1982) who noted that AEQ had a penchant for statistical studies, and it was their British counterparts that were more receptive to historical research. Until recently, a major barrier to historical manuscripts was the journals editorial policy, that of a small word length permitted for manuscripts, which was often too constraining for historical submissions. Finlly, subject area trends reveal a number of changes in the field of adult education. Subjects that are showing an increase as the decade progresses are those of gender/diversity, training/CPE, and teaching/curriculum. In contrast, participation reflects a marked decline, from a high of 18% in 1989 to a lowof2%of submissions 10 years later. The increase in gender/diversity submissions can possibly be explained by greater receptiveness as a consequence of the recent historical feminist challenge to the androcentric biases found in most academic journals and higher education in general (Blunt & Lee, 1994). It would also reflect a reverse in a trend identified earlier by Hayes (1992) that the field is becoming more receptive to articles that are gender related. In addition, other journals in the social science field are also experiencing an increase in submissions related to diversity issues (see
Dillon et al., 1992; Buboltz et al., 1999; Scoy & Oakland, 1991; Williams & Buboltz, 1999). Similar to Blunt and Lees (1994) study of AEQ, this current analysis does not portray a field that is enigmatic, eclectic, and paradigmatically pluralistic (p. 139) as most would suspect. Rather, the findings show that over the past decade almost 70% of all the submissions fall within just 5 of the 12 categories, those of adult learning, participation, gender/diversity, adult education as a movement, and teaching/curriculum. In addition, adult learning makes up more than 25% of all
submission, implying that a core area of content exists within the field of adult education.


Analyzing All Submissions
By looking at all the submissions, a number of factors are identified that demonstrate significance when conducting content analyses of scholarly journals. First, looking at all submissions allows for a more accurate analysis of the receptivity of the journal and the field to particular topics and subjects in adult education. When involving only accepted manuscripts, an analysis is often incomplete and inconsistent (see Hernon et al., 1993; Zamora & Adamson, 1982). Having access to all submissions allows for a determination of the average acceptance rate of the journal, providing a standard rate of comparison for the acceptance rates of individual categories. For example, Kim (1991) criticized both the field and the journal for its dominant Western perspective, not only because of a lack of international publications but also for a propensity for quantitative research. However, when looking at individual submissions in relationship to acceptances in AEQ, over the past decade, a different landscape emerges. Because the journal receives so few international submissions, it results in few international publications. Despite the low publication rate, some of the submissions from countries outside the United States have a higher than average acceptance rate.
A second factor related to accuracy is the issue of timeliness of the content analysis. Most publications in a journal, particularly in the social science field, can take anywhere from 1 year to 2 years from the time the manuscript is submitted to the time it is actually published (see Beyer, 1978; Biggs, 1990; Henson, 1995). This gap between date of submission and date of publication allows for an inaccurate analysis of trends. For example, this study identified that in just 1 year (1989 to 1990) quantitative submissions dropped from 45.2% to 32.9% and qualitative submissions
increased more than threefold from 8.6% to 26.3%. Also, at this same period of time, submissions about participation dropped from 18.3% to 13.2%, reflecting a decline that continued throughout the decade. This drastic change
raises a number of interesting questions: Was lack of interest by the field in participation, which was predominantly quantitative research, the cause for the decline in quantitative submissions? Was the increase in qualitative submissions a backlash to the dominance of quantitative research and a reflection of qualitative researchs
growing acceptance by the larger education field? Without having access to all submissions, these subtle, but significant, changes in submission patterns would often be overlooked and delayed in a typical content analysis, resulting in a less informed understanding of the direction of the discipline. Third, looking at all publication activity provides the opportunity to carry out even more in-depth analyses about the individual categories of submissions. For example, more analysis is needed to understand why women, who are submitting manuscripts in an ever-increasing number, still lag behind men in number of acceptances. This pattern was also found in the review of all submissions and peer-review comments to the College and Research Libraries journal (Hernon et al., 1993). That study concluded that because the peer reviewers did not comment on gender and because the journal practices a double-blind review process that gender did not play a role in rendering an editorial decision (Hernon et al., 1993, p. 316). Fierber and Teimans (1980) study of journal publishing by women economists supported this conclusion, with findings that point towards sex-discrimination among journals which do not have double blind refereeing (p. 193). A more in-depth analysis could help narrow the focus of manuscripts that reflect unusually high or low acceptance
rates and could offer even greater insight into why women experience higher rejection rates than their male counterparts. Finally, by analyzing all submissions the content analysis of a journal can better address its objectives, those of identifying neglected areas of research, implicit values that frame the field, preferences of topics and methods, and issues of receptivity (Buboltz et al., 1999; Ongel & Smith, 1994). In particular for AEQ this means, for
example, exploring ways to encourage greater historical and international submissions. It also means investigating with greater depth why there is such a significant difference in acceptance rates between quantitative and qualitative research and why women, despite their increase in submissions, experience a lower acceptance rate than men. By addressing these concerns, as well as others, the editors of AEQ can better understand its publication activity and can provide a more responsive and informed journal in the field of adult education.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the significance of this study is that it provides another 10 years of analysis of AEQ, continuing a tradition that started in the 1950s of offering a historical perspective to the issues and trends dominant to the scholarship of adult education. Along with this review and other analyses, new insights can be gained, giving
those who have a committed interest in the field the power to chart a specific direction that would address aspects often overlooked or given little attention in the field. Second, it begins to provide greater clarification about some of the issues raised in previous reviews about the receptivity of AEQ, such as the lack of international publications, gender receptivity, and its overreliance on quantitative research. With this new understanding, the present and future editors are empowered with greater foresight to make the journal more responsive to the interests and needs of its readers. Finally, this study offers a new approach to the process of reviewing academic journalsone that is more holistic and accurate in the interpretation of the publication activity of a journal.

The first thing the writer needs to do is look at the web page as noted below. There is a list of resourses (not much to read). Please read all the following sections on this web page: http://tools.iscvt.org/advocacy/start

I then want you to apply two or more of the following (build the team, craft the campaign...etc) to a two page narrative that describes how some of these or other advocacy skills (you can do your own Goggle Scholar or library search) into my community outreach assignment. Begin browsing the resources below:
*Advocacy Resources*
-Build the Team
-Craft the Campaign
-Empower the Coalition
-Speak to Inspire
-Ensuring Success for the long run
-Stories from the field


PLEASE READ CAREFULLY AND INCOORPORATE ADVOCACY RESOURCES TO MY PROJECT. PLEASE ADD and PUT INTO YOUR OWN WORDS PLEASE.
*** On this two page paper you will incorporate what I am working on as my project. Please feel free to add as much advocacy for each (2 or more) resources as possible.

Main points on my projects are:
Goal: The purpose of the service is to describe the service goals, objectives and tasks that must b achieved by the Office of Border Affairs in coordination with Human Health Service agencies. Working together in a coordinated manner, Human Health Service agencies desire to make services more accessible to residents of the Webb County Colonia communities. The plan further identifies specific responsibilities for Human Health Service agencies and PARTNERS who are participating in the plan. The program is coming from TAMIU- Texas Center & Human Health Service Commission- Office of Border Affairs.

*I work under the Border Affairs Division, and it is my job to start this expansion Pilot Program.

PROJECT : GED, ESL, Computer, and Literacy expansion Pilot Program
1) On 2/9/09, there was a Commissioners Court Meeting where we presented a proposal to the Commissioners on the GED, ESL, Computer Literacy Pilot Program. On this day it was passed and we were granted $60, 000 dollars to start this pilot program. We spoke and inspired the commissioners to want to be a part in this program by giving us the funds required.

2) Meeting with Work Force representative and Laredo Community College representative to ask them to help promote the GED, ESL, Computer Literacy Program and also sending us the people to our agency of Border Affairs to enroll. (People being enrolled must be over age 17 and be a US citizen or a resident. If they are not a citizen or resident, they are welcome to join the class to gain knowledge and education.)

The next steps will start in March

3) I will pretest to see where the student is at, and then I shall mid-test the student

4) Post Test and evaluate. See how much the student has advanced or stayed in the same place.
5) Program will start in March and end in October (7 weeks). ***DURING THE TIME, there will also be different guest speakers to educate them on health and well being, also to inform them on other agencies and services out in the community. These agencies will be invited to present to the students for education purposes. ****
6) Lastly, Enhance job training, GED, and job search programs, and Academic and Vocational Counseling Services.
Continue to monitor and distribute listings of jobs available for Webb County, through cooperative agreement with local Workforce providers. Those that wish to pursue their education, help them get into the Laredo Community College to further their education.
-------------------------------------------------------
Cost Estimate:
1. Part time instructors for (12hours) GED instructor@ $22.00 per hour for a total of four instructors= $33, 792 for eight months pilot (March-October)
2. Supplies=$4,000
3. Supervision/Training=$15,000
4. Testing=$4,000
5. Promotora recruitment outreach= $3,208
TOTAL BUDGET= $60,000


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GED Services:
1. Instruction of 5 GED content areas: Math, Science, Reading, Social Studies, and Writing
2. Books and supplies
3. Computer based GED instruction
4. Classroom instruction
5. Individual academic and tutorial services
6. Cultural enrichment activities
7. Academic and Vovational counseling
8. Placement in post-secondary education or employment (referrel to Workforce Soluitions)
9. No cost to qualifying students
10. Human Health Service Commission- Office of Border Affairs will provide Health and Human Services (HHS) resource information during the course work, and will coordinate HHS presentations from partners.
----------------------------------------------

**Please try to use a lot of the advocacy resources to my project. This is a two page paper, 12 inch font size, double spaced. PLEASE USE EVERY LINE AND MAKE IT TWO FULL PAPERS.

Thank you, Cynthia

answer. Do Not Use Outside Sources!

Paulo Freire has been called "one of the most important educational thinkers of the 20th Century"

Questions
1.What makes his ideas so influential?
2.How relevant do you think his ideas are across the broad field of adult education?


Paulo Freire (1921 - 1997), the Brazilian educationalist, has left a significant mark on thinking about progressive practice. His Pedagogy of the Oppressed is currently one of the most quoted educational texts (especially in Latin America, Africa and Asia). Freire was able to draw upon, and weave together, a number of strands of thinking about educational practice and liberation. Sometimes some rather excessive claims are made for his work e.g. 'the most significant educational thinker of the twentieth century'. He wasn't - John Dewey would probably take that honour - but Freire certainly made a number of important theoretical innovations that have had a considerable impact on the development of educational practice - and on informal education and popular education in particular. In this piece we assess these - and briefly examine some of the critiques that can be made of his work.
Contribution
Five aspects of Paulo Freire's work have a particular significance for our purposes here. First, his emphasis on dialogue has struck a very strong chord with those concerned with popular and informal education. Given that informal education is a dialogical (or conversational) rather than a curricula form this is hardly surprising. However, Paulo Freire was able to take the discussion on several steps with his insistence that dialogue involves respect. It should not involve one person acting on another, but rather people working with each other. Too much education, Paulo Freire argues, involves 'banking' - the educator making 'deposits' in the educatee.
Second, Paulo Freire was concerned with praxis - action that is informed (and linked to certain values). Dialogue wasn't just about deepening understanding - but was part of making a difference in the world. Dialogue in itself is a co-operative activity involving respect. The process is important and can be seen as enhancing community and building social capital and to leading us to act in ways that make for justice and human flourishing. Informal and popular educators have had a long-standing orientation to action - so the emphasis on change in the world was welcome. But there was a sting in the tail. Paulo Freire argued for informed action and as such provided a useful counter-balance to those who want to diminish theory.
Third, Freire's attention to naming the world has been of great significance to those educators who have traditionally worked with those who do not have a voice, and who are oppressed. The idea of building a 'pedagogy of the oppressed' or a 'pedagogy of hope' and how this may be carried forward has formed a significant impetus to work. An important element of this was his concern with conscientization - developing consciousness, but consciousness that is understood to have the power to transform reality' (Taylor 1993: 52).
Fourth, Paulo Freire's insistence on situating educational activity in the lived experience of participants has opened up a series of possibilities for the way informal educators can approach practice. His concern to look for words that have the possibility of generating new ways of naming and acting in the world when working with people around literacies is a good example of this.
Fifth, a number of informal educators have connected with Paulo Freire's use of metaphors drawn from Christian sources. An example of this is the way in which the divide between teachers and learners can be transcended. In part this is to occur as learners develop their consciousness, but mainly it comes through the 'class suicide' or 'Easter experience' of the teacher.

The educator for liberation has to die as the unilateral educator of the educatees, in order to be born again as the educator-educatee of the educatees-educators. An educator is a person who has to live in the deep significance of Easter. Quoted by Paul Taylor (1993: 53)
Critique
Inevitably, there are various points of criticism. First, many are put off by Paulo Freire's language and his appeal to mystical concerns. The former was a concern of Freire himself in later life - and his work after Pedagogy of the Oppressed was usually written within a more conversational or accessible framework.
Second, Paulo Freire tends to argue in an either/or way. We are either with the oppressed or against them. This may be an interesting starting point for teaching, but taken too literally it can make for rather simplistic (political) analysis.
Third, there is an tendency in Freire to overturn everyday situations so that they become pedagogical. Freire's approach was largely constructed around structured educational situations. While his initial point of reference might be non-formal, the educational encounters he explores remain formal (Torres 1993: 127) In other words, his approach is still curriculum-based and entail transforming settings into a particular type of pedagogical space. This can rather work against the notion of dialogue (in that curriculum implies a predefined set of concerns and activities). Educators need to look for 'teachable moments' - but when we concentrate on this we can easily overlook simple power of being in conversation with others.
Fourth, what is claimed as liberatory practice may, on close inspection, be rather closer to banking than we would wish. In other words, the practice of Freirian education can involve smuggling in all sorts of ideas and values under the guise of problem-posing. Taylor's analysis of Freire's literacy programme shows that:
.. the rhetoric which announced the importance of dialogue, engagement, and equality, and denounced silence, massification and oppression, did not match in practice the subliminal messages and modes of a Banking System of education. Albeit benign, Freire's approach differs only in degree, but not in kind, from the system which he so eloquently criticizes. (Taylor 1993: 148)
Educators have to teach. They have to transform transfers of information into a 'real act of knowing' (op cit: 43).
Fifth, there are problems regarding Freire's model of literacy. While it may be taken as a challenge to the political projects of northern states, his analysis remains rooted in assumptions about cognitive development and the relation of literacy to rationality that are suspect (Street 1983: 14). His work has not 'entirely shrugged off the assumptions of the "autonomous model"' (ibid.: 14).
Last, there are questions concerning the originality of Freire's contribution. As Taylor has put it - to say that as many commentators do that Freire's thinking is 'eclectic', is 'to underestimate the degree to which he borrowed directly from other sources' (Taylor 1993: 34). Taylor (1993: 34-51) brings out a number of these influences and 'absorbtions' - perhaps most interestingly the extent to which the structure of Pedagogy of the Oppressed parallels Kosik's Dialectic of the Concrete (published in Spanish in the mid 1960s). Here we would simply invite you to compare Freire's interests with those of Martin Buber. His concern with conversation, encounter, being and ethical education have strong echoes in Freirian thought.

Here is the copy of the assignment sheet that I have to follow from, any subject matter would do as long as it pertains to how it affects the commuinity in a negative way. This is supposed to be typed as a Research Exposition







English 305 Paper 4??"Research Exposition

Due Date: May 3d, 2012

Length Range (1500-1800 Words)

Format: MLA style sheet (On-line Guidelines: owl.english.purdue.edu) or Google Purdue OWL.

Topic: Describe a problem-issue that has influenced your local community (geographic area or town) in a negative way. Use both personal point-of-view and research to suggest solutions.

The lack of any of the items mentioned below may constitute a problem-issue in your community. Ideas or point-of-view that you contribute may work in a positive direction to overcome the negative tendencies within the community, making a positive change.

Sample Potential Topic Areas (for your consideration):

?The Closing or Downsizing of a Community Industry

?Methamphetamines or other Drug-related Community Problems

?Lack of Community Support for Local Merchants

?Community Infrastructure Problems

?Lack of Community Support for Charities or Civil Groups

?The Inability of a Community to Attract/Sustain New Business

?Encouraging Young People to Stay and not leave a Local Community

?Developing a Unique Sense of community within a particular Town

? Encouraging Tourism within a community

? Developing a Community based Economic Enterprise Zone

? Developing a Community based Youth Recreation/Activity Center

? Developing New Community Parks and Recreation Facilities

?Developing a Community Center for a Local Town

?Developing Community based Alternative Energy Sources

?Developing a Community based Recycling Program

?Developing a Community based Literacy Program

?Developing a Community based Family/Domestic-Abuse Program

?Developing a Community based Neighborhood Watch Program

?Developing a Community based Citizens Advocacy Group to encourage the positive development of a town or Community

? Developing a Community Farmers-Market for local Agriculture

? Redeveloping a Community Agriculture Plan for Small Farmers

? Developing Community based Agricultural Markets for Local Growers

? Or, Other Topics You May Think are Workable



Introduction:

The introduction to the paper will define and describe the problem. Take as many paragraphs as you need to completely define and describe the community problem thoroughly and completely. The main idea(s) for this paper will reflect the solution(s) to this problem.


Body:

Body paragraphs should describe potential solutions to the problem. The solutions should come from your own point-of-view and insight gathered from external research sources. Perhaps, other communities have experienced similar problems? What have these communities done to help solve the problem? Personal Interviews with local, community leaders make excellent sources for this kind of paper. You may want to email leaders or talk by phone. Face-to-face interviews may also be arranged. Sources should use MLA citation format.

Most of this paper should come from your own point-of-view (your own ideas). Use (cite) at least two (2) sources within the Body of the paper. Sources may clarify your own ideas, support your own ideas, or be used as case study background information to draw analogies to your own community and its problem.

Conclusion:

What are the first steps that should be taken to solve the community problem based on your opinion and judgment? What action should be taken by the local community to overcome this problem?

Works Cited:

Provide a Works Cited sheet at the end of your paper that cites the two sources used in the paper.

Literacy in context
Assessment Task
NOTE: This assignment has two parts.

Part 1: Student work sample analysis

1. Analyse ONE text (work sample) written (or read) by a student studying in your subject area.

2. Identify the student?s literacy learning needs using evidence from the work sample.

3. Design two strategies to support the student?s literacy development in this subject area.

Task description (Part 1)
i) Provide a very brief profile of the student who wrote the work sample (e.g. age, year, gender, background, school history etc).

ii) Analyse the work sample in terms of:

the degree to which the text displays the student?s knowledge of the field
the choice of text type
Has the student chosen the type of text demanded by the context?
the stages of the text
Has the student structured the text so it achieves the social purpose effectively?
the language features of the text (cohesion and grammar)
Has the student used the key language features of the text effectively?
the surface features of the text (spelling, punctuation, layout, presentation)
Has the student proofread and presented the text effectively?
iii) Identify the student?s literacy learning needs as demonstrated by this work sample, including needs related to:

field knowledge e.g. use of technical/specialist terms, symbols and categories
knowledge of the types of texts used to display knowledge in your subject area e.g. knowledge of stages typically used to ensure these texts achieve their social purpose effectively
knowledge of the language features of relevant text types e.g. features related to text cohesion, paragraph structure, grammar (sentence and clause structure, verb groups, noun groups and phrases), spelling and punctuation
iv) Identify two literacy teaching strategies that could be used to contribute to this student's literacy development in the context of your subject area.

Part 2: Literacy teaching sequence

1. Provide an outline of a unit of work in your teaching area.

2. Prepare a literacy teaching sequence relevant to the unit of work.

Task description (Part 2)
Provide a very brief outline, or overview, of a unit of work in your teaching area.
Design a literacy teaching sequence you could incorporate into this unit of work in order to support students of a profile the same as, or similar to, the student whose text (work sample) you analysed in Part 1.
Your teaching sequence should:

support students as they learn to read and/or write a specified text type relevant to your subject area
demonstrate your knowledge of the literacy development cycle presented in this unit
incorporate well-designed literacy teaching activities, including activities that put into action the two literacy teaching strategies identified in Part 1.

Assignment 2 - Locating a work sample
In order to complete Assignment 2 you will need to collect a student work sample.
Begin this task now by looking for:
? texts students are expected to read and understand in your subject area (i.e.
examples of the reading demands of your subject area)
? texts written by students in response to learning or assessment tasks in your
subject area (i.e. examples of the writing demands of your subject area)
Share with other students working in your subject area how you plan to collect these
texts. There are several ways to collect work samples, including:
? from a teaching context where you are working or doing a practicum
? by making contact with a school or TAFE in your area, perhaps a school where
you might work or do your practicum in the future, or a school your children
attend
? asking around among school and TAFE teachers and/or students in your circle of
family and friends
? using work samples posted on websites by departments of education or
curriculum authorities such as the NSW Board of Studies.
You may find other sources as well. There are some links highlighted in the Study
Timetable.
If you choose a sample text students are expected to read and understand in your
subject area, ensure the text is no more than one page in length. Also ensure that
the text achieves one, or at the most, two social purposes. Here are some examples:
? describes a phenomenon (e.g. an artwork, sporting equipment, a geological
formation, a geometry shape, a setting or character in a novel or play)
? instructs students on the steps they should follow to achieve a goal (e.g. the
steps needed to complete science experiment, play a sport, prepare a surface for
an artwork, tune a musical instrument, complete a maths problem)
? retells or chronicles events (e.g. an excursion diary, a biography, an historical
account, solution to a maths problem, what happened during a science
experiment, a synopsis of a novel or play)
? explains a process (e.g. water cycle, lifecycle of an animal, consequences of the
? Vietnam war, how a cake rises, inflation)EDEE#400#Literacies#in#Context#2#Assignment#1&2#?#Important#Information
? organises information (e.g. types of mammals, types of quadrilaterals, parts of
an internal combustion engine)
If you choose a sample text a student has written in your subject area, again ensure
the text is no more than one page in length. Also ensure that the text achieves one,
or at the most, two social purposes (see above).
If you choose a text from the Assessment Resource centre, make sure that choose a
sample which will show some literacy areas of need. Choose those samples which
are in the bottom range.
Before you use student work, please follow all the appropriate protocols to do with
privacy and permission. For example, you might need to:
? clarify that you have the student's and the school's permission
? remove any identifying information (names, name of school etc)
? ensure a website you take a sample from is open to the public
? reference the source accurately (see the relevant ASO fact sheets for how to
reference)
The best work sample to choose is one where a student has read or written a piece
of extended text - at least a paragraph in length, but no more than one page long for
practical reasons. This gives you an opportunity to assess all levels of the students'
literacy skill - text level, sentence level, word level and surface level (spelling,
punctuation, handwriting/typing, presentation). If you use work samples that only
include isolated words, sentence fragments or single sentences (e.g. filling in
missing words on worksheets), then it will be much harder for you to display what
you know and to achieve the Assignment 2 marking criteria.
You will need to include a copy of the work sample with your assignment so the
marker is able to assess your analysis. For this reason, choose a work sample that is
not more than about a page long because you must incorporate a scanned copy of
the work sample text into your assignment pdf.
If you have not yet completed a practicum, in order to locate a work sample, you may
need to contact students who are studying your subject area and/or with teachers
teaching this subject.
There are many ways of doing this. Here are just three examples:
? working as a volunteer in a school, a home work centre, after school program
? providing individual tuition e.g. private tuition, tuition with organisations such as
the Smith Family or Bernardo's
? talking with young people in your circle of family and friends about their studies
? joining a relevant professional association (as a student member) and attending
? training and information sessions given by that association e.g. ALEA, PETAA,
? History/English/Mathematics (etc) Teachers Association
The task of finding a work sample is part of the assignment. The task of locating a
work sample is a research task that contributes to your achievement of the unit
outcomes.
If you are not able to make the time to build your own contacts in your local
community, there are literally dozens of work samples in the NSW Board of Studies
ARC website: http://arc.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/. Work samples can also be
found on the Australian Curriculum website:
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/
There may also be work samples on the web sites of other curriculum and
assessment authorities in Australia. For example, there are student work samples on
the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website.

Literacy Research Summary. 1000 word essay. Use PDF file that is uploaded for directions. FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS IN PDF. i will upload previous weeks assignment as a guide because you will need that to go off of.
Customer is requesting that (Boethius) completes this order.

Literacy specific:
A Vision statement: representing your vision of an English classroom
Describe this learning environment (what it looks like, sounds like feels like).
Be specific about programs, strategies, assessments, teaching philosophy, 21st century demands such as multliteracies, critical thinking, technology etc...theories, models perspectives

Articulate how you plan to achieve this vision justifying your claims with reference to relevant academic literature.