Community oriented policing versus problem oriented policing effectiveness

¶ … Community Oriented Policing vs. Problem Oriented Policing

Effectiveness of Community Oriented Policing vs. Problem Oriented

There are a number of fundamental concepts that are important in understanding the role and responsibility of modern policing in contemporary industrialized societies. These include the idea that "... The police institution originates with the people, depends on them for support, and, in effect, the people are the police and the police are the people." (Robinson, Scaglion & Olivero, 1994, p. 127)

Secondly, that the primary focus of the police is to protect the majority of law - abiding people from the minority of criminal and law- breakers. (Robinson, Scaglion & Olivero, 1994, p. 127) The modern police, as an institution, have its origins "in the need to do something about a real rise in crime and/or disorder..." (Emsley, 1999, p. 8)

Therefore, in conventional terms, the responsibly of the police is to maintain law and order and to protect the innocent against the criminal elements. However, the nature of modern society and the complexity of many forms of criminal behavior have created debate, and changes, with regard to the extent and range of modern policing responsibility. This debate centers on new views of policing responsibility and can be summarized by the following question. Should the police be mainly responsible for only the effects and results of crime or should police be more involved with the underlying and root causes of crime?

The first view sees the responsibility of the police as operating on the surface of social life. "They must handle incidents, situations, and people as they are now -- not societies or people as they might have been. For these reasons, the immediately precipitating causes of serious crime are far more important to the police than are broader questions about the root causes of crime."(Robinson, Scaglion & Olivero, 1994, p. 138)

The above quotation relates to the problem solving or reactive role of the police in society. However the second point-of-view - that police responsibility extends to the fundamental causes of crime - is seen as essential to modern policing and to certain types of crime which are socially complex. This view, which is becoming increasingly dominant with regard to crimes, such as hate crimes and others, suggests that, "... recent research has shown that reactive policing cannot control these types of crime." (Robinson, Scaglion & Olivero, 1994, p. 138) An example given in one study states that "...the probability of making an arrest for serious crimes was most affected by the "quality of the information" supplied by victims and witnesses, not by follow-up police investigation." (Robinson, Scaglion & Olivero, 1994, p. 138)

The above view suggests that a more integrative and community based approach to policing is more effective with certain crimes; and this in turn suggests an extension of the basic responsibilities and duties of the police.."..the concept and practice of community policing, its advocates argue, is in the process of replacing reform policing. Harking back to the... earlier concept of... community policing (which) can create a new form of community out of the ravages of the old. (Robinson, Scaglion & Olivero, 1994, p. 138)

This debate in reality revolves around two apparently different viewpoints about the role of the police and policing responsibly. Firstly, there is the problem solving or reactive point-of-view and approach, where the emphasis is on the understanding of the word 'problem' from a policing perspective only.

The other point-of-view and one which has assumed a more popular and dominant role in contemporary policing, is that of community orientated policing. Put somewhat simplistically, this view posits that any policing activity to be effective must take account of and work within and in conjunction with the community. The following quotation provides a more comprehensive definition.

Community policing can be defined as a philosophy that focuses on crime and social disorder through the delivery of police services that includes aspects of traditional law enforcement, as well as prevention, problem-solving tactics and partnerships. A fundamental shift from traditional, reactive policing, community policing stresses the prevention of crime before it occurs and requires police and citizens to join together as partners in the course of both identifying and effectively addressing the underlying conditions that give rise to crime and disorder.

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It should also be noted at the outset that these two points-of-view and praxis have areas of similarity and are not absolutely diametrically opposed.

However, the central focus of this paper will be on the effectiveness of each approach and the reasons given for the one process being better to worse than the other. The aims of this study will therefore be twofold. Firstly to ascertain the general tendencies, advantages and disadvantages of the two policing methods. Secondly, to apply these research findings to actual situations on the ground.

2. Literature Review

Much of the literature on modern policing makes the following important points. This sophistication and types of modern organized crime have had a wide-ranging impact on the conventional and older notions of police responsibility. A realization has also emerged in many studies that a narrow view of police responsibilities is not conducive to combating the range and extent of various types of organized crime, including terrorism, and that the old policing methods "cannot do it all." This has resulted in a more cooperative and wider view of policing responsibilities; which is often undertaken in conjunction with other institutions and organizations. This has also meant the involvement of local and regional governments in the process of policing.

Leighton (1991) provides a good overview of the differences in policing policies and procedures. This study entitled Visions of Community Policing: Rhetoric and Reality in Canada clearly shows the difference between the problem and community orientation in policing. The author states that,

Community policing, sometimes referred to as community-oriented policing, community-based policing, or problem oriented policing, is currently presented by academic observers of policing as characterizing "modern," "progressive," or "contemporary" policing... While many of these commentators have also actively influenced the direction of community policing, it has been the prevailing wind of change among North American police leaders for the past few decades (Leighton, 1991, p. 485)

On the other hand Leighton also points out that there are certain questions with regard to the general acceptance of community policing. He notes that there is little real empirical evidence to suggest its superiority over the problem solving or 'reactive' policing orientation. (Leighton, 1991, p. 486) Furthermore, he inserts a question mark behind the unquestioning acceptance of this form of policing. He states that there are "... police executives claiming success for their own community-based policing project without a rigorous evaluation..." (Leighton, 1991, p. 486) This is an aspect that will have to be carefully considered in this study,

The study by Leighton is also of importance to the general debate in that it questions the actual meaning of community policing. In a similar vein to many other studies, Leighton notes that, "...community policing might be more correctly referred to as a re-emergence, renewal, or revitalization of a former philosophical, organizational, and operational approach to urban policing developed last century in Metropolitan London by Peel and his associates." (Leighton, 1991, p. 487)

This study is useful in that it provide a good foundation for many aspects of the debate between problem and community orientated policing. The author states, for example, that community policing is best understood as a partnership in its fullest sense between the police and law enforcement authorities and the community in identifying and dealing with crime and disorder. Central to the idea of community policing is the philosophy that "... crime and disorder problems are the joint property of the community as "client" as well as of the police as the local agency delivering public security services. Accordingly, the police and the community are co-producers of order and civility." (Leighton, 1991, p. 487)

This symbiotic relationship and the type of perception and praxis that it engenders, is at the heart of what community policing is all about. (Leighton, 1991, p. 487)

One of the most important insights of this comprehensive study is that community policing can also be extremely problematic. One of the reasons is that this form of policing often necessitates extensive and sometimes intrusive changes in the structure and organization of the police force and its functioning.

While there are a variety of components to various visions of community policing, most of them proceed from the partnership principle which has far-reaching implications for the organization and operations of police forces. "(Leighton, 1991, p. 487) This is an aspect that is often used in arguments against community orientated policing in much of the literature and will be expanded on further in the discussion section of this study. Leighton also notes that community policing can be divided into four elements in terms of the relationship between the police and community. These are reciprocity, decentralization of command, reorientation of patrol and civilianization. (Leighton, 1991, p. 488)

One study which sheds light on the issue of community policing is Hastings, R. (1990) Municipal Government Involvement in Crime Prevention in Canada. This work provides insight into the way that municipal government interacts with the police in the organization of crime prevention structures and the delivery of crime prevention services and activities. (Hastings, 1990, p. 108)

The idea of municipal government interaction in crime prevention is shown to have been spurred on in Canada by "....the successes of locally organized and community-based initiatives in North America. In both cases, the involvement reflects a sense that, whatever crime prevention is, the police cannot do it alone." (Hastings, 1990, p. 108) This again attests to the prevailing theme in the literature that there is a general consensus that the police force faces problems that are complex and which require the interaction and the assistance of other local community and municipal structures.

Hastings emphasizes this sense of interaction in the field of community policing and particularly the way that the focus of policing responsibility has shifted from specific problems to a wider sense of community involvement. "Therefore, police responsibly has tended to move in the direction of interaction and cooperation with other agencies in controlling and coordinating the investigation of organized crime." (Hastings, 1990, p. 115)

In this regard Hastings notes the important emergence of crime prevention councils. These councils are an indication of the direction of modern policing and the faith in community policing "... such councils are initiated and directed by local elected officials. Though they usually involve local police forces, the very existence of such councils reflects the recognition that crime prevention must go beyond traditional approaches to law enforcement and into the social policy arena." (Hastings, 1990, p. 115)

The literature also points out how modern types of crime are often not able to be adequately dealt with by the more focused and limited problem solving policing methods. This is often seen in instances of policing and hates crimes.

The following is a definition of hate crime from the 1998 International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) Summit on Hate Crime in America. "A hate crime is a criminal offense committed against persons, property or society that is motivated, in whole or in part, by an offender's bias against an individual's or a group's race, religion, ethnic/national origin, gender, age, disability or sexual orientation. " (Turner N.) Hate crimes are a particularly complex form of crime and challenges the idea of conventional policing responsibilities. This is due to the fact that this form of crime is deeply embedded in biases and perceptions in the community and society. Many critics are of the opinion that a model of policing responsibility which only deals with the effect or result of this sort of crime is not adequate. In other words, problem solving policing which focuses mainly on the manifestations crime and does not pay adequate attention to the underlying causes and dimensions of the crime, is not seen as being sufficient to deal with this complex type of social problem. Therefore there has in many cases been an extension or enlargement of policing responsibilities in this regard. The International Association of Police Chiefs states that, "Hate crimes and hate incidents are major issues for all police because of their unique impact on victims as well as the community." (Turner N.)

Furthermore, hate crimes are particularly problematic in the United States, with its "... long history of racially-motivated assaults and murders, lynchings, etc." (Media Crime 1.) Statistics also show a relatively high incidence of this crime. "A total of 11,987 law enforcement agencies in 49 states and the District of Columbia collectively reported 9,730 bias-motivated incidents during 2001. " (Media Crime 1.) The high incidence of this crime as well as its potential to inculcate further crime and social discontent has resulted in various legal responsibilities for the police. "As of 1999, 41 states and the District of Columbia have hate crime statutes that provide enhanced penalties for crimes in which victims are selected because of a perpetrator's bias against a victim's perceived race, religion or ethnicity. " (Media Crime 1.)

Therefore the police have a particularly heavy responsibility in this regard and the response to hate crimes should be swift and effective in order to help the victims as well as to stabilize the society and community. A failure to respond effectively can lead to the possible jeopardy of public safety as well as affecting the public image of the police department. Furthermore, "By doing the job efficiently and carefully, police can reinforce the message that hate crimes will be investigated aggressively, thus enhancing the likelihood of a successful prosecution." (Media Crime 1.)

This has been a particularly worrying aspect of policing as the allegations of racism and prejudice have in recent years been leveled at the police. "Discrimination against blacks by law enforcement officers has been well documented in the literature..." And " The substantial body of research that concludes that police officers frequently exhibit prejudice and discrimination against blacks in the discharge of their duties.." (Markowitz & Jones-Brown, 2000, p. 126) Studies like these emphasize the importance of community oriented policing over the narrower, reactive form of policing of the past. The allegations of prejudice directed at the police have been one of the motivating factors towards a form of policing that takes cognizance of the community.

Studies also indicate that community police agencies are seen as service-orientated organizations. (Leighton, 1991, p. 492) Therefore in terms of the way that the police in a community context are perceived, they are not seen as a "force" to solve particular problems but rather as a "police service."

Because police officers serve and protect the public and provide related services to the public for crime and disorder problems, the preferred title of their organizations is now a "police service." This service orientation is consistent with the interpretation of urban policing as another municipal service, along with health, education, etc., which are delivered as legal and social justice entitlements to local taxpayers. (Leighton, 1991, p. 492)

The literature is careful to point out that this can result in a radical change of organization role and function of the police service or force. As already mentioned, one of the central issues that impacts on the debate between problem solving and community modes of policing is that the adaptation of the service and community structure changes the very way in which conventional, policing responsibilities have been organized.

In the first instance many studies point out that that community policing now adopts standards and methods that have been used in the private sector, such as partnerships and performance values such as the "search for excellence." (Leighton, 1991, p. 492) This in effect means that the very structure of policing is being remodeled and is adopting a corporate mode of action and responsibility.

This is in contrast to the previous policing model which"... primarily serves the limited outcome of police work focused largely on crime control. This emphasis is symbolically represented by the use of "police force" as the preferred term for their organizations." (Leighton, 1991, p. 492)

An article which provides insight into the historical rationale and antecedents to the change in the way that policing responsibility has been perceived is Policing Post-9/11 by Robert J. Louden (2005). This article concisely shows how the move from a purely problem solving perspective to community policing was a result, firstly, of the move towards greater sense of professionalism in the police force in the 1960's and 1970's. There was at this time a desire to "... streamline bureaucracy, decentralize decision-making, and instill in the patrol officer a sense of commitment to the neighborhood and community." (Louden, 2005, p. 757)

This period of American history was also one of tumult and social unrest; particularly with regard to civil right issues. A greater need for a partnership between the police and the public sector became necessary and in the 1980's was seen as an essential aspect of combating crime. "One common thread in the various police efforts was an endeavor to reach out to the community and establish friends and helpers in the fight against crime." (Louden, 2005, p. 757)

The precursor to the present state and general acceptance of community policing can seen in the following quotation.

Rather than cling to the simplistic notion that the criminal law defines the police role, we come to realize that policing consists of developing the most effective means for dealing with a multitude of troublesome situations. And these means will often, but not always, include appropriate use of the criminal law. (Louden, 2005, p. 757)

The events of the tragedy of 9/11 of course led to the realization that crime and especially the fight against terrorism could only be effectively achieved with a new model of policing which emphasized a close and symbiotic relationship between the police and the community. It is not too much to say that the increases in terrorism and its affect on the western world are one of the central and most important justifications for community policing.

Another imperative with regard to the reason for community policing is mentioned in the literature as the demographics of policing in the United States. The country is "...largely a nation of small town -- not national -- policing." One essential point made is that,

According to federal government statistics, there are more than 17,000 local and state police departments in the country. Even though the NYPD employs almost 40,000 sworn officers, the next largest city has only about one-third that number. (19) Less than 100 local agencies have 1000 officers and less than 1000 departments employ a minimum of 100 officers. (Louden, 2005, p. 757)

These facts emphasizes that community policing is necessary in order to be able to adequately deal with the range and complexity of crime.

The literature also shows an expected bias towards the implementation of community policing. In an article by Nolan and Nuttall (1993) from the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, the authors stat that while there may be differences and even ambiguity in the understanding of what community policing entails, yet,

Despite this ambiguity, all successful community policing efforts incorporate several core principles. They include empowering communities to solve their own problems, creating a process for addressing complex community safety problems, developing comprehensive solutions, and implementing these solutions through a coordination of services.

Nolan and Nuttall 1993)

As has been briefly mentioned there is also a large section of the literature which critiques the community orientated view. One study which is extremely comprehensive in its analysis of the various components of community orientation is What Is Community Policing? from the Kentucky Regional Community Policing Institute. In the article's extensive overview of the principles and methods of community policing, it also notes the salient fact that COP or community orientated policing "... is not the answer to all problems facing modern policing or all the problems facing any one department. However, COP is an answer to some of the problems facing modern policing and it may be an answer to some of the problems facing any one department." (What Is Community Policing?) This is possibly as more balanced and realistic view of the significance of community orientated policing that should be borne in mind in an equitable comparison of the two modes of policing praxis.

3. Methodology

The methodology that was used in this study was essentially discursive. In other words, the central methodological praxis was so to assimilate all the relevant data for various reports, studies and online databases on the topic in question. It was found that the Internet was particularly useful in this regard, as some of the latest data and information was provided only on online databases and was relatively easily accessible.

After the various data sources were assimilated it was analyzed in order to determine the central characteristics and aspects relating to the two policing methods. The results were the compared and conclusions drawn. Another aspect that was included in the in overall attempt to come to some conclusions in the debate on the efficiency of either community or problem solving policing, was the analysis of various case studies and actual instances of these modes of policing. These were then compared with the research data and literature to add substance to the conclusions and results that were drawn. Furthermore, a questionnaire was devised which could be used to further substantiate or test these conclusions within various specified areas.

5. Findings and results

From the overview of the different areas concerned and the reports and studies on the subject, it was found that while community orientated policing does have certain advantages over problem solving or problem orientated methods, there are various problem areas that that have to be taken into account.

Problem solving modes of policing tend to have the advantage of not diluting the authority of the police and avoid running the risk of interference by the society or community structures. Having said this it becomes clear from the research that community orientated policing has the advantage of addressing certain central and important concerns in the community

To summarize, there were a numbered of cardinal results that became evident from the research as well as from the case studies. Although this is a complex area of discussion yet the first conclusion that can be drawn from the data and research material, is that the community approach or orientation is the better method of dealing with complex crimes, particularly with the social nature of much criminal activity. The advantage of the community oriented approach is that it draws on a wide array of cultural and social resources which can provide solutions to problems that would not have been the case using a narrower view of policing responsibilities.

As the literature and case studies show, the advantages of community oriented policing lies in the way that it can draw on public spirit and, even more importantly, in the way that this method can solve problems at the foundational level. Problem solving techniques on the other hand tend to see criminal problems in isolation and therefore do not have the same reach or ability to deal with problems at the root level of causation.

On the other hand the problem solving mode of policing also has certain distinct advantages in that it tends to be more focused and therefore is able to more rapidly stop certain criminal activity. A negative aspect of community orientated policing is that it also tends to change and necessitate a radical realignment of traditional policing activity and may create tensions within the more traditional sectors of the policing community. In the final analysis possibly a combination of these two modes of policing could be considered. What is also evident from the research is that community policing is more is appropriate to certain types of crime, for example hate crimes and crimes that re raise socially sensitive issues.

4.1. Case studies

The New Hanover County provides an example of the focus on community policing and is also evidence of the acceptance of this mode of policing. In 2000 The New Hanover County Sheriff's Department received a $1,170,554 grant to fund 11 additional School Resource Officers The grant, which was awarded by U.S. Department of Justice's Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) was intended to help will help finance salaries and fringes for the additional officers over that period. (Sheriff's Dept. Receives SRO Grant)

This shows the increasing concern with the implementation of COP in various areas of the country. The faith in COP is evidenced by the fact that that the grant is part of a national, $68 million effort to increase the presence of police in schools. New Hanover County is one of eight North Carolina communities to receive a portion of $3.4 million in funding to be distributed statewide. According to the Department of Justice, the idea of community policing and these grants is to encourage law enforcement officials to work in cooperation with the community to lower crime and decrease the instances of school violence. The grants are given under the COPS in Schools program to provide means for regions to hire community-policing officers to work in primary and secondary schools."

Sheriff's Dept. Receives SRO Grant)

Furthermore, in 2003 North Carolina received $130.7 million from the Justice Department, which amounts to a $33.3 million increase from fiscal 2002, with one of the aims being improving the criminal justice system.

An example of the policing interaction with communities can be seen in the following example from both Wilmington and New Hanover. This refers to a software program that is being distributed by the police in these areas which is intended to allow parents to better monitor their children's activities on the Internet. The program called ComputerCOP has been distributed at schools and through parent's organizations. A report also notes that, "The Wilmington Police Department and New Hanover County Sheriff's Office will also make the software - purchased with $11,000 in drug forfeiture money through a manufacturer's discount program - available for free." (DeSantis J. 2006.)

The application of community policing has, according to some critics, assumed preeminence over purely problem solving methods. An example of this can be seen in the case of Wilmington, Delaware. In this particular case the implementation of a wide rang of community orientated policing methods succeeded in drastic results.

The community of Wilmington experienced severe problems with, among others, including drug sales, disorderly conduct, gambling violations, assaults, domestic disputes and health and fire code violations in certain areas. (Nolan and Nuttall 1993) The situation began to worsen in the community and there was clearly a need for the police to interact and liaise with community structures in order to alleviate the situation. The police therefore developed a strategy and established a task force to implement this strategy. There was a realization that..." Some problems are more complex and require more planning and collaboration between police, government agencies, and citizens in order to develop effective solutions. Ideally, these problems are discussed at community meetings held within the affected neighborhood." (Nolan and Nuttall 1993)

Therefore the task force that was developed by the police in the region was intended to make use of maximum coordination with the community and social organizations. This was termed SPARC or the Solving Problems and Restarting Communities Task Force.

SPARC consisted of, one representative and one alternate from each city department. Each member must possess the authority to make decisions and to commit the resources of the department they represent. In addition, for efficiency, SPARC divides its responsibilities between community policing officers, who play a primary role in the problem-solving process, and task force members. (Nolan and Nuttall 1993)

The task force also subscribed to the SARA problem solving model used in problem orientated policing. This consist of four steps; namely scanning, analysis, response, and assessment. All of these steps involve close coordination and cooperation with the community. For example, in the response phase of the process the police pay especial attention to community feedback in order to determine the effectiveness of the response.

This in effect means the community response is taken into account and allowed to have an impact on further investigations and actions.

While officers may perceive that a problem has been solved, the community may disagree. Therefore, a quality control survey, including such questions as, "From your perspective, is the problem completely solved?" And "What more would you like to see accomplished regarding this problem?" can help officers to determine whether the problem was solved to the community's satisfaction. These surveys measure the success of a program in terms of quality, rather than quantity, as is normally the case in police environments. (Nolan and Nuttall 1993)

Likewise, in the initial scanning phase of operation the police took account not only of normal police sources of information but also consulted city departments and organized neighborhood groups. After defining or scanning the problem, the findings were presented to the SPARC Task Force meeting, which then went on to develop a plan of action.

The results from the use of this intensive collaboration between the police and the community were dramatic. After implementation of the task force recommendations there was a significant drop in crime and reported incidents to the police.

After this action, calls for police service at the residence fell from 50 a month to 0. The neighbors have expressed appreciation for the comprehensive process and results. Criminal activity no longer occurs at the residence. Further, the city helped the family by providing housing and services, instead of arresting them. Equally important, the family and the community now perceive the police as helpers, not just punitive enforcers. (Nolan and Nuttall 1993)

The last point mentioned above is particularly significant in terms of this study. The perception of the police and the role that they played in this particular case resulted and a very positive image of the police, which augurs well for the future of crime prevention in the area. This is emphasized by a report that states "...A key factor in the success of this scenario was the commitment, cooperation, and coordination of all city departments and participating agencies in developing and implementing a comprehensive strategy to solve this problem." (Nolan and Nuttall 1993)

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, the above study reinforces the contention that that community orientated policing is a method that provides a greater chance of achieving a more holistic and inclusive policing service to the public.

Another aspect that comes to the fore in the research is that community policing also enhances the ability of the police force or service to effectively deal with crime. This is particularly the case with regard to crime which has it origins in social and community issues and problems.

On the other hand the more traditional problem solving and directed police approach also has its advantages in being more focused in terms of using the particular skills of a traditional police force. As has been discussed there are also disadvantages to community policing, especially the disruption and confusion that can be caused in the initial stages of implementation.

However, all the studies and research attest to the fact that community orientated policing is a form of policing that is particularly suitable and appropriate to the contemporary climate and to modern transnational crime. With the increase in the threat of crimes such as terrorism as well as organized crime, there seems to be no real or viable option than to make use of all the resources that the society and community can provide. This is particularly true when one considers the how the increase in communications technology, for example, has increased the ways and means that criminals have at their disposal. With modern technical advances, crime in effect cannot be fought in the old "reactive" way alone, but rather must make use of all the resources at its disposal to be able to curtail and combat crime in the modern era.