Learning Theory An Assessment of Applicability

The Applicability of Learning Theory
Learning is a complex process by which an individual acquires and modifies their knowledge, behaviors, attitudes, and skills through study, instruction or experience. Theories provide a framework for understanding how learning occurs and the factors that influence its effectiveness. Learning theories are complex and comprehensive principles that explain how individual learn, develop, and progress (Rosser-Majors, 2017). They acknowledge that human beings learn differently and attempt to contextualize the learning process. Four of the most common learning theories are behaviorism, constructivism, cognitivism, and humanism. This text analyzes the learning process as portrayed by these four theories, the ideologies within each theory, and evidence-based application of learning theory to enhance learning.
Behaviorism Theory
Behaviorism theory emphasizes the role of external factors/stimuli in shaping an individual’s behavior (Rosser-Majors, 2017). Behaviorists argue that all behavior is an association between an environmental stimulus and the individual’s response to the same. As such, learning takes place as a response to an external stimulus and is not influenced by cognitive thought processes (Rosser-Majors, 2017). From a behaviorist’s perspective, therefore, the learner only plays a passive role as a responder to external stimuli, and is not an active participant in the learning process. Behaviorism stresses the consequences of the learning process, and stimulus is manipulated until the right response/consequence is demonstrated. Learning is said to have occurred when an individual displays a proper response following the presentation of a certain stimulus (Rosser-Majors, 2017).
Behaviorism theory incorporates several ideologies, including operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and associative learning. Classical conditioning is a process by which an individual pairs a naturally existing stimulus and one that was initially neutral to create an association such that the neutral stimulus eventually triggers the involuntary response that was previously caused by the naturally existing stimulus (Rosser-Majors, 2017). For instance, one could have developed a habit of heading to the refrigerator for a snack anytime a commercial appears as they are watching their favorite program on the television. Continued pairing of commercial breaks with a snack eventually turns the commercial breaks, which were once a neutral stimulus, into a conditioned stimulus such that the individual craves a snack anytime a commercial appears.
Conversely, operant conditioning introduces punishment or reinforcement to the stimuli-response associative relationship (Rosser-Majors, 2017). For instance, if a class teacher punishes a student for failing to submit an assignment by not allowing them to go out during recess; the student develops an association between the behavior (failing to submit assignment) and the associated consequence (not going for recess). Consequently, the student would decrease the problematic behavior.
Cognitivist Theory
Like behaviorism, cognitivism recognizes that environmental conditions play a role in influencing learning. However, the emphasis played on environmental stimuli as influencers of behavior varies between the two theories. Whereas behaviorists recognize the environment as the primary influencer of learning, cognitivists stress the importance of mental processes. Cognitivism is based on the idea that whereas environmental factors influence an individual’s knowledge-acquisition process, learning depends more on the way a learner attends to, rehearses, codes, stores, and retrieves information (Harasim, 2017). The learner, therefore, is an active rather than passive participant in the learning process (Harasim, 2017). Learning depends on their mental processes, as well as their values, attitudes, and beliefs (Harasim, 2017).
One of the fundamental ideologies of cognitivist theory is Bloom’s taxonomy. Bloom’s taxonomy explains that learning occurs through a six-stage process, where each stage is characterized by a certain level of thought lower than that directly above it (Harasim, 2017). Higher levels of learning are associated with higher thought processes at the top of the taxonomy. The lowest stage is the remembering stage – an individual at this stage is able to recognize and recall knowledge from memory; while one at the understanding stage is able to not only retrieve knowledge, but also construct meaning through comparing, summarizing, and interpreting ideas (Harasim, 2017). The third stage is the applying stage, where an individual is able to retrieve, construct meaning, and carry out procedures through execution and implementation (Harasim, 2017). The fourth stage of learning is the analyzing stage, where the individual is able to break down knowledge into constituent parts, and attribute as well as identify how different components relate to each other (Harasim, 2017). The fifth stage is the evaluating stage, where the learner is able to make judgment based on standards and criteria through critiquing and checking (Harasim, 2017). The final stage is creating, where the learner is able to put elements together into a functional or coherent whole (Harasim, 2017). The choice of learning strategy is influenced by an individual’s position on the taxonomy (Harasim, 2017).
Also fundamental to cognitivist theory is schema theory, which postulates that learning is easier if an individual is able to compare new subject matter to existing knowledge (Harasim, 2017). Under the schema theory, individuals store knowledge in schema or information packets that inform how they perceive unfamiliar concepts. The schema for an event or object is what helps the individual recognize that object or another that resembles it (Harasim, 2017). Learning occurs when one is able to accurately relate an object or event to a schema. For instance, a learner who sees a horse for the first time stores the image in their schema. When they meet a donkey, they refer to their schema and relate it to a horse, but later learn that the same is a donkey. Learning thus occurs through relating new information to existing schema.
Constructivism Theory
The idea underlying constructivism is that learners build knowledge through a process of active reconstruction. The theory agrees with cognitivism that learning is a mental process and the learner plays an active role in the learning process. Further, the theory agrees with both behaviorism and cognitivism that the external environment influences learning. However, unlike the two theories, constructivists do not believe that knowledge is mapped from the external environment onto a learner. Rather, they believe that a learner gains knowledge by building personal interpretations of the world from their individual experiences and interactions (Rosser-Majors, 2017). Thus, the internal representation of knowledge is constantly changing to reflect changing experiences and interactions (Rosser-Majors, 2017).
A fundamental ideology of constructivism is dialectical constructivism, which identifies social interactions as the primary way through which individuals gain knowledge (Rosser-Majors, 2017). As people interact, they engage in debates, comparing, and sharing with mentors and other learners (Rosser-Majors, 2017). This way, they obtain new knowledge and are able to refine their existing knowledge while also influencing others to refine their knowledge, resulting in the construction of mutual knowledge (Rosser-Majors, 2017). Group discussions are an adequate example of how knowledge could be gained through dialectical constructivism – people interact, with each other, acquiring new concepts and changing their worldview to reflect the new knowledge (Rosser-Majors, 2017).
This varies significantly from endogenous constructivism, which emphasizes the idea of internal constructions of knowledge. Under endogenous constructivism, a learner builds knowledge internally by associating new concepts or ideas with information stored in the schema (Rosser-Majors, 2017). In case of discrepancies between real-life experiences and existing schema, the individual negotiates within themselves, experimenting and using graphic organizers whenever necessary to unearth the truth, and then compounding or modifying their existing knowledge (Rosser-Majors, 2017).
Humanism Theory
Behavioral theorists stress that the environment is the primary influencer of learning. For cognitivists, mental ability is the chief influencer, as is individual experiences for the constructivist. In humanism, however, learning is driven by the need to attain a certain goal, or to seek value and creativity (Rosser-Majors, 2017). Unlike the other three theories, humanism stresses the idea that human beings have choices, are intentional, and strive to acquire knowledge in a bid to attain a certain goal (Rosser-Majors, 2017). The goal of humanistic learning is to develop a self-actualized, autonomous person capable of realizing their full potential (Roseer-Majors, 2017). The learner, like the cognitivists, and constructivists, plays an active role in the learning process (Rosser-Majors, 2017). However, in humanism, they are the source of authority and decide what materials to use and how to use the material (Rosser-Majors, 2017).
A prominent ideology of humanism theory is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which categorizes human needs into five clusters that align in the form of a hierarchy such that one has to satisfy the lower-level needs before they can satisfy the needs at higher levels (Rosser-Majors, 2017). The lowest level needs are the physiological needs, which include the need for food, air, and water (Rosser-Majors, 2017). Self-actualization needs are at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy, and include the need for self-fulfillment and self-expression (Rosser-Majors, 2017). In Maslow’s view, learning is driven by the need to attain a goal determined by the position in the hierarchy of needs. For an individual at the lowest level (physiological needs), for instance, learning is driven by the need to obtain basic needs to ensure survival, while for one at the self-actualization level, learning is driven by the need to realize growth and self-sufficiency (Rosser-Majors, 2017). The effectiveness of learning, however, depends on how well the learning method adopted meets the individual’s needs at a certain level.
The self-determination theory is an equally important ideology of humanism. The theory postulates that people are motivated to grow by the psychological needs of autonomy, belonging, and competence (Rosser-Majors, 2017). As such, people are more likely to learn if they feel the need to be independent, wish to realize success, and are striving to fit into a certain context. As such, an individual is more likely to want to learn if they are likely to win a promotion as a result, and such learning is more likely to be effective as compared to another individual who is motivated by the need to please their parents. Humanism requires an instructor to identify the needs that motivate a learner to seek knowledge, and then structure the learning process to address the identified need.
Strategies for Ensuring Effective Learning
Self-regulation learning strategies have been shown to have a positive impact on learning outcomes (Wan, Compeau & Haggerty, 2014). In this regard, strategies will be selected based on their impact on self-regulation on the part of the learner. One of the strategies that I am looking forward to adopt to enhance learning moving forward is reflective journaling. A study conducted by Al-Rawahi and Al-Balushi (2015) testing the effectiveness of journal writing on the performance of 32 tenth-grade students found that participants who wrote journals significantly outperformed their colleagues in the control group with respect to self-regulation strategies. Journal writing facilitates reflection and provides a platform for the learner to express their feelings about the learning process and compare the same to the expectations. Further, through journaling, a learner can effectively identify what they expect to gain from the learning experience, which could provide a basis for the needs that they hope to fulfill. With this information, an instructor can identify the learner’s needs and choose learning strategies that adequately address these needs.
The second strategy is goal-setting. Wan et al. (2014) identify goal-setting as a fundamental component of self-regulated learning. Dotson (2016), in a study seeking to assess the impact of goal-setting on individual learners’ academic performance, found that the learners’ performance grew by 9 percent when learners began goal-setting. Goal-setting helps to provide the learner with a sense of direction on how they would like learning to progress, and hence, the needs that they would wish to satisfy from the learning experience.
Conclusion
Learning is a process by which an individual acquires new knowledge and skills through instruction, study or experience. Several factors influence learning including the external environment, individual experiences, mental ability, and the intended goal(s). What is evident from the various theories, however, is that learning is an individualized process that is influenced by the specific needs that the learner seeks to address. In this regard, it is prudent that instructors identify the learning needs of individual learners so as to select teaching strategies that address these needs.
References
Al-Rawahi, N., & Al-Balushi, M. (2015). The Effect of Reflective Science Journal Writing on Students’ Self-Regulated Learning Strategies. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 10(3), 367-79.
Dotson, R. (2016). Goal-Setting to Increase Student Academic Performance. Journal of School Administration Research and Development, 1(1), 44-46.
Harasim, L. (2017). Learning Theory and Online Technologies. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Rosser-Majors, M. L. (2017). Theories of Learning: an Exploration. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education.
Wan, Z., Compeau, D., & Haggerty, N. (2014). The Effects of Self-Regulated Learning Processes on E-Learning Outcomes in Organizational Settings. Journal of Management Information Systems, 29(1), 307-40.